*>

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, £ tS ^

Journal of tbe

Ropal microscopical Societp

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

AND
A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOOXjOG-^T -A.3STID BOTANY
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia)

MICROSCOPY, 3cc.

EDITED BY
R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.R

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. LL.D. A. N. DISNEY, M.A. B.Sc.

Regius Professor of Natural History in the
University of Aberdeen

FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY

AND

A. B. RENDLE, M.A. D.Sc. F.R.S. F.L.S.

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum

HAROLD MOORE. B.Sc. RALPH ST. JOHN BROOKS,

Woolwich Arsenal M.A. M.D. D.P.H. D.T.M. & H. (Camb.)

Minimis partibus, per totuin Naturae campum, certitude- omnis innititur
quas qui fugit pariter Naturam fugit.—Lmnaus.

FOR THK YEAR
1915

TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY'S ROOMS

20 HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON, W.

of Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 Henrietta Street, London, W.C.
and of Messrs. DULAU & CO., 37 Soho Square, London, W.

** ^

Extra and informal Meetings are held on the 1st and 4th
Wednesday evenings of the month. These Meetings are devoted
to : — (1) Biology, Bacteriology, and Histology ; (2) Microscopical
Optics and Microsope Construction.

/ (TV i|X

THE'

JJapl |Jttci|aficajjtcal jlirciqtir,

Established in 1839. Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1866.

The Society was established for the promotion of Microscopical and
Biological Science by the communication, discussion, and publication of observa-
tions and discoveries relating to (1) improvements in the construction and
mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) Biological or other subjects of
Microscopical Research.

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-offlcio Fellows of either sex.

Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Kecommendation
signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence, and
description of the Candidate, of whom the first proposer must have personal
knowledge. The certificate is read at two General Meetings, and the Candidate
balloted for at the second Meeting.

The Admission Fee is 21. 2s., and the Annual Subscription 21. 2s., pay-
able on election, and subsequeutly in advance on 1st January annually. The
Annual Subscriptions may be compounded for at any time for 31/. 10s. Fellows
elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February are only called upon for
a proportionate part of the first year's subscription. The aunual Subscrip-
tion of Fellows permanently residing abroad is 1/. lis. Qd., or a reduction of
one-fourth.

Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in
Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of five
Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council.

Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100), consisting of the Presidents for the
time being of any Societies having objects in whole or in part similar to those of
the Society, are elected on the recommendation of ten Ordinary Fellows and the
approval of the Council.

The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs of
the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the President,
four Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Ordinary
Fellows.

The Meetings are held on the third Wednesday in each month, from
October to June, at 20 Hanover Square, W. (commencing at 8 p.m.). Visitors
are admitted by the introduction of Fellows. (See preceding page.)

The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the
Society, and a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, etc., is published
bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and Ex-officio Fellows
residing in countries within the Postal Union.

The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects'
is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.
It is closed for four weeks during August and September.

Forms of proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may be obtained by
application to the Secretaries, or. Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society.
"20 Hanover Square, W.

a 2

Ration
ills MAJESTY THE KING.

ilust-ihestbents.

T r El icted

•Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B. D.C.L. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. 1840-1

*John Lindley, Ph.D. F.R.S : 1842-3

•Thomas Bell, F.R.S 1844-5

* James Scott Bowerbank, LL.D. F.R.S 1846-7

•George Busk, F.R.S 1848-9

•Arthur Farre, M.D. F.R.S 1850-1

•George Jackson, M.R.C.S 1852-3

•William Benjamin Carpenter, C.B. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. 1854-5

•George Shadbolt 1856-7

•Edwin Lankester, M.D. LL.D. F.R.S 1858^9

•John Thomas Quekett, F.R.S I860

•Robert James Farrants, F.R.C.S 1861-2

•Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1863-4

•James Glaisher, F.R.S 1865-6-7-8

•Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, M.A. F.R.S 1869-70

•William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S, 1871-2

•Charles Brooke, M.A. F.R.S 1873-4

•Henry Clifton Sorby, LL.D. F.R.S 1875-6-7

•Henry James Slack, F.G.S 1878

•Lionel S. Beale, M.B. F.R.C.P. F.R.S 1879-80

•Peter Martin Duncan, M.B. F.R.S 1881-2-3

•Rev. William Hy. Dallinger, M.A. LL.D. F.R.S. 1884-5-6-7
•Charles Thos. Hudson, M.A. LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S. 1888-9-90

Robert Braithwaite, M.D. M.R.C.S 1891-2

Albert D. Michael, F.L.S 1893-4-5-6

Edward Milles Nelson 1897-8-9

William Carruthers, F.R.S. F.L.S. F.G.S 1900-1

Henry Woodward, LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S 1902-3

Dukinfield Hy. Scott, M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. 1904-5-6
•The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, P.C. D.C.L. LL.D.

F.R.S., etc 1907-8

Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, K.C.B. M.A. LL.D. F.R.S.

F.L.S. F.Z.S 1909

J. Arthur Thomson, M.A. F.R.S.E 1910-11

Henry George Plimmer, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., etc 1911-12

* Deceased.

COUNCIL.

Elected 20th January, 1915.

president.
*Professor G. Sims Woodhead, M.A. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S.E.

IVue-presibents.
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
*Julius Rheinberg.
• David J. Scourfield, F.Z.S.

E. J. Spitta, L.R.C.P.(Lond.), M.R.C.S.(Eng.).

(Treasurer.
*Cyril F. Hill.

Secretaries.

*J. W. H. Eyre, M.D. F.R.S.E.

*F. Shilling-ton Scales, M.A. M.D. B.O.(Cantab.)

(Oruimup ijlembers of Council.

F. W. Watson Baker.
*Frederic J. Cheshire.

C. Lees Curties.

Arthur Earl and.
*R. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P.

Professor R. T. Hewlett, M.D., F.R.C.P., D.P.H., etc.

J. Milton Offord.

Robert Paulson, F.L.S.

Percy E. Radley.
*Charles F. Rousselet.
*A. W. Sheppard, F.Z.S.

Charles D. Soar, F.L.S.

* Members of the Publication Committee.

EDITOR.

R. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P.

LIBRARIAN.

Percy E. Radley.

curators.
Charles F. Rousselet. | Edward J. Sheppard.

assistant secretary.
A. E. Bull.

CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGK

I. — X-rays in Relation to Microscopy. By J. E. Barnard. (Plate I. and Fig. 1) 1

II. — Notes on the Structure of Tests of Fresh-water Rhizopoda. By George

Herbert Wailes, F.L.S. (Plates II. and III.) .. ..' 105

*

III. — A New Mitotic Structure disclosed as the Result of New Technique. By

E. Sheppard, F.R.M.S. (Plate IV. and Fig. 15) 117

IV. — The President's Address : On Some of the Microbiological Problems of

the Present War. By G. Sims Woodhead. (Figs. 22-5) 205

V. — A Simple Form of Spectroscope and Micro-Spectroscope. By Julius

Rheinberg. (Figs. 26-8) 227

VI. — The Dawn of Microscopical Discovery. By Charles Singer. (Figs. 38-48) 317

VII. — On the Male Genital Armature of the Dermaptera. Part I.: Protoder-
maptera (except Psalidse). By Malcolm Burr, M.A. D.Sc. F.L.S. F.E.S.
Communicated by John Hopkinson, V.-P. R.M.S. (Plates V. to IX.
and Figs. 55-7) 413

VIII. — On the Male Genital Armature of the Dermaptera. Part II. : Psalidae.
By Malcolm Burr, M.A. D.Sc. F.L.S. F.E.S. Communicated by John
Hopkinson, V.-P. R.M.S. (Plates X. to XII. and Figs. 58-64) .. .. 521

IX. —A Short Statement upon the Theory, and the Phenomena of Purpose and
Intelligence Exhibited by the Protozoa, as Illustrated by Selection and
Behaviour in the Foraminifera. By Edward Heron-Allen, F.L.S.
F.Z.S. F.R.M.S 547

NOTES.

Objective Screw Thread. (Fig. 29) 230

lioyal Microscopical Standards for Eye-pieces and Substage '58

OBITUARY.

August Weismann. 1834-1914 8

Vlll CONTENTS.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.
«• Embryology-

PAGK

Parker, G. H. — Sex-determination in Pigs id

Parker, G. H., & C. Bullard — Litters and Nipples in Swine 1 < *

Herlant, M. — Experimental Parthenogenesis in Sea-urchins 11

Hegner, Robert W. — Studies on Germ-cells II

Goette, A. — Development of Nerves of the Head in Fishes and Amphibians .. .. [3

Neal, H. V. — Eye-muscle Nerves 14

Billiard, G. — Regenerative Capacity of Lizards 16

Orton. J. H. — Hermaphrodite Amphioxus .. .. " " 16

Doncaster, L. — Determination of Sex 123

Grosser, O. — Age of Human Embryo 12.~>

Pearl, R., & F. M. Surface — Effect of Corpus Luttum Substance on Ovulation in

Fowl 12.".

„ „ „ Egg-production in the Domestic Fowl 126

Makuschok, M. — Development and Evolution of Lungs 127

Pearl, Raymond, & Alice M. Boring — Development of Feathers 127

Alten. H. v. — Visceral Clefts in Chelonians J 28

Pearl, R. — Brooding Instinct in the Domestic Fowl 128

Chidester, F. E. — Abnormal Hen's Egg 129

Banta, A. M., & R. A. Gortner — Milky-white Jell in' Axolotl Spawn 129

„ „ „ Accessory Appendages in Amphibian Larva . . 1 29

Jennings, H. S. — Inbreeding 180

Pearl, Raymond — Inbreeding 1 30

Warren, Ernest — Hybridism, between Cockatoos 131

Gunther & Paula Hertwig — Hybridization Experiments on Fishes 131

Bates, George A. — Development of Pronephric Duet in Elasmobranchs .. .. lol

Gortner, R. A., & A. M. Banta — Experiments on Amphibian ra 182

Pearl, Raymond, & R. N. Salaman — Sex Ratio among Jews 132

Loeb, Jacques — Artificial Parthenogenesis and Fertilization 2:;2

Gortner, R. A. — Chemistry of Development 234

Banta, A. M., & R. A. Gortner — Centrifuging Eggs of Wood Frog 235

Hart, D. Berry— Typical Sex-ensemble in Mammals 235

Banta, A. M. — Inhibition of Pigment 236

Hart, D. Berry — Hermaphroditism and Pseudo- Hermaphroditism in Mammals . . 237

„ „ Hunter's Freemart in and Reversion 238

Riddle, O. — Sex in Pigeons 23s

Pezard, A. — Secondary Sex-characters in Fowls 23'.*

Pearl, Raymond, & Maynie R. Curtis — Experiments on Oviduct of Fowl.. .. 239

Levi. Guiseppe — Development of Visual Cells in Amphibians 240

1'edaschenko, D. — Development of the Neives of the Eye-muscles 240

Loeb, Jacques — Cluster Formation of Spermatozoa 341

Loeb, Leo — Germ Cells and Somatic Cells .. 342

Cowdry. E. V. — Development of Nerve Cells of the Chid: 348

Hoskins, E. R. — Development of Rectal Gland of Squaius acanthias 844

Reese, A. M. — Development of Lungs of Alligator 344

CONTENTS. IX

PAGE

Harrison, Ross G. — Reaction of Embryonic Cells to Solid Structures 311

Clark, Eleanor Linton & Eliot R. — Lymph Heart* of Chid; Embryos .. .. 346

Gudkrnatsch, J. F. — Feeding Experiment* on Tadpole* 347

Hatai, Shinkishi — Weight <>f Thymus in fiat according to Age 347

Kingsbury, B. F. — Interstitial Cells of Mammalian Ovary 347

Haht, D. Berry — Sex-ensemble 34S

Loep.. Jacques — Entrance of Spermatozoon into the Egg 448

Gray. James — Relation of Spermatozoa to Electrolytes 450

Boring, Alice M.. & Raymond 1'earl — Spermatogenesis in Domestic Chicken .. 451

Reeves, T. B. — Interstitial Cells in Chicken's Testes 451

Zeleny, Charles, & E. C. Faust — Size Dimorphism in Spermatozoa from Single

Testes '. .. .. ' 451

Pearl, Raymond — Inheritance of Fecundity 452

Cole, Leon J., & W. F. Ktrkpatrick — Sex Ratio in Pigeons 452

Hatai, Shinkishi — Growth of Body and Organs of Albino fiats fed with Lipoid-

free Ration 453

King, Helen Dean — Weight of Rats at Birth 453

Hoge. Mildred A. — Influence of Temperature on Development of a Mendelian

Character 454

Marshall. F. H. A., & J. G. Runciman — Ovarian Factor in Recurrence of QSstrou*

Cycle 454

Baldwin, W. M. — Artificial Production of Spina bifida in Frog 455

Bensley, B. A. — Spawning of Black Bass 455

Wilson. J. T., & J. P. Hill — Early Monotreme Egg 456

Swift, Charles H. — Primordial Germ-cells of Chid: 456

Bremer, J. L. — Earliest Blood-vessels in Man 457

\\ 1st, Randolph — Development of Posterior Lymph-heart in Chid; 457

Badertscher, J. A. — Development of Thymu* in Pig 457

., „ Development of Thymus in Pig .. .. 458

Sumner, Frances B. — Experiments on White Mice 459

Hatai, Shinkishi — Effect of Castration on Growth 460

Philipps. John C. — Hybridization among Ducks and Pheasants 461

Newman, H. H. — Inheritance in Teleost Hybrids 461

„ ,, Hybridizing Teleosts 462

Morris, Margaret — Behaviour of Chromatin in Teleost Hybrids 463

Suschkina-Popowa, X. — Development of Limbs in Ox and Pig 559

Emmel, Victor E. — Erythroblasts of Pig Embryo 561

Beddard, Frank E. — Foetus of Sperm Whale 561

Blakeslee, A. F., & D. E. Warner — Correlation between Egg-laying and Yellow

Pigment in Fotol 561

Johansen, A. C, & A. Krogh — Influence of Temperature on Rate of Development

of Fishes 562

Krogh, August — Influence of Temperature on Rate of Development 562

Guitel, F. — Larval Polypteru* .. 562

Hatta, S.— Peristomal Mesoderm and Tail in Lamprey 562

Schaffner, J. H. — Chromosomes and Mendelian Inheritance 563

Hensen, V-. — Reproduction, Heredity, and Death ;>•;:;

b. Histology.

Thomson, David & J. G. — Cultivation of Human Tumour Tissue in vitro .. .. 17

Ballowitz, E.— Melaniridosomes 17

X CONTENTS.

l-A'.K

Joly, J. — Theory of Action of Rays on Growing Culls 17

Schmidt, \V. J. — Structure of Skin in Anguida 17

Martin, C. H. — Nematooysts in various Groups 18

Studnicka, F. K. — Endoplasm and Exoplasm L33

Arnold, Julius— Plasmic Structures 133

Holmes, S. J. — Movements of Melanophorcs of Frog 133

Torraca, Luigi — Chondriosomes of Cartilage Cells 133

Heidenhain. Martin— Taste-buds of Babbit's Tongue 134

Alagna, Gaspare — Ganglion Cells in 1'alatine Tonsil of Man 134

Haggqvist, Gosta — Nerve Cells in Human Epidermis 134

Stadtmiller, Fr. — Scleral Cartilage of Urodela 134

Retterek, Ed., & H. Xeuville — Minute Structure of Penis and Glans in Lemurs 135

Hirschler, Jan — Mitochondria and Other Plasmic Structures 241

Szuts, Andkeas von — Minute Structure of Nerve-cells 241

Fortcyn, A. E. 15. Droogleevkr — Cortical Cell Lamination in Cerebral Hemispheres

of Rodents 241

Kaschkaroff. — Bone in Sunjish 242

Cutore, G. — Elastic Cartilage in Intra pulmonary Bronchi of Mammals 242

Alagna, G. — Cartilaginous Inclusion in Human Palatine Tonsils 242

Tkinci, G. — Chromaffine Bodies along the Human (Esophagus 242

Herrmann, Th. — Appearance of Fat in Human Thymus 243

Holmes. S. J. — Epidermis of Amphibians Cultivated Outside the City 348

Lloyd-Jones, Orren — Microscopical and Chemical Study of Feather-Pigments in

Pigeons 349

Laurens, Henry — Beactions of Amphibian Larvm to Light 350

Hooker, Davenport — Amoeboid Movement in Melanophores of Frog 351

Retterer, Ed. — Adipose Tissue 351

Nageotte, J. — Non-medulla ted Nerve Fibres 351

Schumacher, S. von — Independent Life, of Cells 463

Lewis, Margaret R., & Warren H. Lewis — Mitochondria in Tissue Cultures .. 465

Cowdry, E. V. — Mitochondria in Vertebrate Nerve-cells 406

Scammon, Richard E. — Histogenesis of Selachian Liver 466

Corner, George W. — Structural Unit of Pig's Pancreas 467

Ringoen, A. R. — Mast Leucocytes of Babbit .. 467

Evans, Herbert M. — Macrophages of Mammals 467

Hartog, Marcus — Mechanism of Mitosis 468

Minchin, 1'rof. E. A. (the late) — The Evolution of the Cell 564

Kite, G. L.— Permeability of Cytoplasm of Cells 566

Xeuville, H. — Pyloric Musculature in Bears 567

Rosen, Nils — Integument of Plectognaths ,,; 7

c. General-

Kerr, J. Graham — Plankton 18

Fitzgekald, M. P. — Changes in Breathing and Blood at High Altitudes .. .. 19

Pooock, R. I. — Facial Vibrissas of Mammals 19

Christie-Linde, A. Arnback — Organ of Jacobson and Palatine Cartilage . . .. 20

Orton, J. H. — Bale of Growth in Marine Invertebrates 20

Chandler, Asa C. — Distribution and the Origin of Species 135

Daniel, J. Frank — Scales of Heterodontus francisci 135

Shelford, Victor E — Besponses of Sessile and Motile Organisms 136

Boveri, Th. — Theory of Malignant Tumours 136

CONTENTS. XI

PAGE

Mayer, A. G. — Effects of Temperature on Tropical Marine Animal" 130

Fenis, F. De— Feet of Bats 136

Moore, B., & others — Nutrition of Marine Animals i4LJ

Adams, Charles C. — Animal Ecology 244

Shelford, Victor E. — Animal Communities in Temperate America 244

Aresu, Mario — Hypophysis in Chimxra monstrosa 244

Chiavaro — Posterior Upper Incisor* of Rabbit 24 5

O Honoghue, (Jhas. H. — Venous System of Dogfish 245

Longman, Heber A. — Radiogenesis in Evolution 245

Blegvad, H. — Nutrition of Marine Invertebrates 351

Jensen, P. Boyson — Organic Matter of Sea-bottom in Danish Waters 352

Cameron, A. T. — Iodine in Marine Animals .. :>.~>3

Thomas, Oldfield — Penis-bone in Squirrels 353

Retterer, Ed., & H. Neuville — Retractor Penis in some Lemur idm 353

Scott, Andrew— " Whitebait " of Menai Strait 354

Chapman, Frederick — Structure of Papuan Limestone of loiver Miocene Age .. 354

Southern. K. — Marine Ecology 409

Bastian, H. Charlton — Present-day de Novo Origin of Living Organisms . . .. 470

Cunningham, J. T. — Hormone Theory of Transmission of Modifications 470

Kincaid, Hilda — Phosphorus Content in Different Types of Animals 471

Boothbt, Walter M. — Circulation Bate in Man 471

Boulenger, E. G. — Colubrid. Snake with Vertically Movable Maxillary Bone.. 471

Nicholls, Geo. E. — Vrostyle and Spinal Cord of Frog 472

Johnstone. James — Diseased and Abnormal Conditions of Marine Fishes .. .. 472

Kisser, Jonathan — Olfactory Reactions in Amphibians 568

Krogh, August — Relation between Temperature and Standard Metabolism .. .. 569
Ege, Richard, & August Krogh — Relation between Temperature and Respiratory

Exchange in Fishes 501*

Anthony, R. — Brain of a Fatal Gorilla 570

Lydekker, R. (the late) — Morphology of the Coracoid 570

Tunicata.

Holt, Alfred — Colouring Matters of Diazona oiolacea 21

Gorgot, E. Rodriguez y Lopez de — Tunicates of Santander 22

Burghause, Fritz — Circulation and Luminescence in Pyrosoma 22

East, E. M. — Self -sterility in Ciojiia 245

Oka, Asajiko — New Species of Agnesia from Japan 57"

Name, Willard G. Van — Simple Ascidians of New England and Adjacent Coasts 571

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.

Bollinger, G. — Fresh-water Molluscs of Celebes 137

Hall, W. H. — Mollusca n Fauna of Florida Oligocene 571

a. Cephalopoda.

Ishikawa, C, & Y. Waku a— Japanese Cuttlefish 246

Cunningham, J. T.— Simulacra of Molluscan Sheds 17:;

Xll CONTENTS.

y. Gastropoda.

PAGI

Boycott, A. E., & J. W. Jackson — Apparent Absence of S( xual Characters in Shell

of Neritina fluviatilii 22

Imlsman, H. C. — Development of Periwinkle 137

Artom. Cksakk — Cell* with Double Nuclei in Spermatogenesis of Paludina vivipara 246

Hennegut, L. F.— Epithelial Cells of Solids 354

Odhneb, Nils Ht. — New Arctic Opisthdbranch 571

5. Lamellibranehiata-

Porstek, J. — Luminous Organs and Nervous System of Pholas dactylus 22

Matthias, .Martin — Alimentary Sy»tem and Heart of Area 247

Massy, Anne L. — Estimating Age of Oysters .. 248

Howard, A. D. — Reproduction of Fresh -mater Mussels 354

„ „ Hosts of Glochidia 356

Arthropoda.

McIndoo, X. E. — Olfactory Sense in Hymenoptera and Spiders 138

Thompson, W. R. — Phagocytic Reaction in Arthropods 572

a. Insecta.

Smith, Geoffrey, & A. H. Hamm — Stylopization 23

Taylor, Monica — Chromosome Complex of Cnlex pipiens 24

Narcissus Flies 24

Whiting. Thineas W. — Bristles of Greenbottle Fly 25

Hewitt. T. R. — Larva and Pupa of Frit-fly '25

Harrison, J. W. H., & L. TJoxcASTEK—Gametogenesis in H ybrid Motlts .. .. 25

Smollian, Kurt — Variability of Tiger Moth 27

Abbott, James Francis — Mimicry in Genus Limenitis 28

Chapman, T. A. — Life-history of Agriades thersites 29

Bethune-Baker, G. T. — Genital Armature in Lepidoptera 29

Bowater, W. — Heredity of Melanism in Lepidoptera 29

Lehr, Richard — Sense- organs of Dytiscus Wings 29

Stellwaag, Fr. — Mechanism of Flight in Lamellicorns 30

Cummings, Bruce F. — Scent-organs in Caddis-flies 30

Bagnall, R. S. — Tertiary Thysanopteron 30

Glasgow, H. — Gastric L'seca of Heteroptera 30

Awatj, P. R. — Suction in Potato Capsid Bug 31

Carpenter. G. H. — Injurious Insects in Ireland 31

Munro, J. W. — Braconid Parasite of Pine-weevil . . 31

Cameron, A. E. — Life-history of Belladonna Leaf miner 31

Ehrhardt, R. — Myrmeeophilous Organs of Larval Lycxna orion 140

Verity, Roger — Variations in Italian Lepidoptera 141

Cornetz, V. — Nocturnal Ohservations on Ants 141

Wickham, H. F. — New Miocene Coleoptera from Florissant 142

Warren, Ernest — New Termitophilou* Beetle 143

Kellogg, V. L., & J. H. Paine — Indian Mallophaga 143

Carl, J. — Phasgonurids of Tonkin 143

Dexter, John S. — Beadea '-wingrd Variation in Drosophila 143

Morgan, T. H. — Failure of Ether and Radium to produce Mutations in Drosophila 144

CONTENTS. xill

PAGE

Metz. Charles W. — Apterow Drosophila : .. 144

Scott, H. — Early Stages of Paliostoma schineri ..' 140

Brown, Annette Frances — Evolution of Colour Pattern in Lithocolletis .. .. 248

Oaepenteb, G. H., & others— Life-history of Warble-Flies 250

Bretsohneider, F. — Brain of Cockroach and Mealworm 250

Grassi, B. — Migration of Larval Phylloxera 252

Haddun, Kathleen — Mouth-parts of Glow-worm Larva 252

Bagnall, Richard S. —New Thysanopteru 252

Shull, A. Franklin — Behaviour and Local Distribution of Thysanoptera .. .. 252

Shaw, H. B., & W. E. Castle — Thrips as Pollinator of Beet-flowers 253

Cummings. Bruce F. — Mouth-parts of Anoplura 253

Bethcne-Baker, G. T. — Clasping Organs of Insects .. .. 356

Tsou, Y. Hsuwen — Homology of Body Set;e in Caterpillars 357

Metz, C. W. — Chromosome Groups in Genus Drosophila 357

Hyde, Roscoe R. — Sterility in Drosophila ampelophila 358

Morgan, T. H. — Sex-linked Lethal Factors in Drosophila 358

Hyde, Roscoe R. — Fertility in Drosophila - .. .. 358

„ „ Fertility in Drosophila 359

Morgan, T. H. — Infertility of Rudimentary Winged Females of Drosophila ampe-
lophila 359

Patten, Bradley M. — Orienting Reaction of Blowfly Larva 359

Nicholson, Ethel — Cenirifuging Spermatocyte Cells of Notonecta 360

Roubaud, E. — Blood-sucking Muscid Larvae 361

„ „ Myiasis and allied Diseases 361

Kelin, D., & W. R. Thompson — Life-history of Dry inidae 362

Thompson, W. R. —Dipterous Parasite of Larval Mycetophylid 362

Keilin, D., & W. R. Thompson — Pipuncidids Parasitic in Homoptera 362

Bagnall, Richard S. — New Thysanoptera .. .. 363

Minchin, E. A. — Structure of Rat-flea 474 -

Chinaglia, Leopoldo — Abdominal Hairs in Bombyeidie 474

Teodoro, G. — Malpighian Tubes in Lecanium 474

Chinaglia, Leopoldo — Abnormalities in Insects 475

Banks, C. S. — New Malaria Mosquito 475

Malloch, Jqhn R. — Chironomidae of Illinois 475

Waterston, James — Bird Lice of Genus Doeophorus found on British Auks .. 475

Clemens, W. A. — Life-histories of Species of Heptagenia 476

Meek, C. F. U. — Mitotic Spindle in Spermatocytes of Earwig 476

Jackson, Annie C. — Male of Indian Stick-insert 477

Ktnloch, J. Parlane — As regards Lice 477

Guercio, Giacomo del — Clover Pests 478

Berlese, Antonio — Reproduction and Sex-dimorphism in Insects 572

McIndoo. X. E. — Olfactory Sense in Honey-bee 572

MacGillivray, Alex. D. — Immature Stages of Tenthredinoidea 573

Wadsworth, J. T. — Life-history and Habits of Knapweed Gall-fly 573

Hammond, L. F. — Protective Coloration of Rupee of Pier -is brassicm 573

Cockayne, E. A. — (Jynandr amorphous Lepidoptera 573

Duncan, F. N. — Gynandromorphs of Drosophila ampelophila 574

Keilin, D. — Apodous Insect Larvae 074

Bugnion, E. — Structure of Glow-worm 074

Krogh, August — Influence of Temperature on Development of Mealworm .. .. 575

Voinov, D. — Spermatogenesis of Mole Cricket 575

Xiv CONTENTS

PAGE

Neandeb, Alvar — Stigmata of Dragon-fly Larvie 57»;

Oguma, Kan — Prolapsus recti in Dragon-fly 576

Kellogg, Vernon L., & G. P. Ferris — Anoplura and Mallophaga from Zululand 576

Reillt, Anna J. — New British Maehilida 576

/3. Myriopoda.
Bagnall, Richard S. — Symphyla from Algeria 363

y- Prototracheata.

Kemp, Stanley — Per ipatus from Abor Country 363

Clark, Austin H. — Distribution of Onychophora 478

5. Arachnida.

Kew, H. Wallis — Nests of Pseudoscorpions 32

Berland, Jeanne — Life-cycle of a Spider 145

Hodgson, T. V. — Antarctic Pycnogonids 146

Halbert, J. N. — Acarina of Clare Inland 365

Jackson, A. Randell — Scottish Spiders 479

Williamson, W., & C. D. Soar — Genus Lebertia 479

Berlese, Antonio — New Acarina 479

Hirst. Stanley — Blood-Sucking (iamasid Mite on Couper's Snake 576

t. Criistacea.

Agar, W. E. — Inheritance in Parthenogenesis 33

„ ,, Parthenogenetic and Sexual Reproduction in Cladocera 33

Sollaud, E. — Fresh-water Prawns from Tonkin 3-1

Annandale, Nelson — New Barnacles 34

Chapman, Frederick — Ostracod from Middle Devonian 35

Bodvieb, E. L. — Crustaceans from Mauritius 146

„ Larval Stages of Palinurus 147

„ Larval Stage of Jaxea nocturna 147

Sexton, E. W. — Male of Anthura gracilis .. 147

Banta, A. M. — Persistent Parthenogenesis in Daphnia 254

Withers, T. H. — Remarkable New Cirripede from the Chalk 254

Cunnington, W. A. — Parasitic Eucopepoda from Tanganyika 254

Selbie, C. M. — Reptant Decapoda of Irish Coasts 365

Cowles, R. P. — PaUemons of the Philippine Islands 366

Collinge, W. E. — New Genus of Terrestrial Isopods 366

Huntsman, A. G. — New Caprellid , 366

Sars, G. O. — Entomostraca of Georgian Bay 366

Weckel, Ada L. — Fresh-water Entomostraca of North America 3'J6

Chapman, Frederick — Ostracods from Australia 367

Allee, AV. C. — Reactions of Isopods 480

Scourfield, D. J. — New Copepod from Hollows on Tree Trunks 480

Collinge, Walter E. — Idotea hectica 577

Dees, Fug. Daday de — Monograph on Phyllopoda eonchostraca 577

CONTENTS. XV

HAGK

Brady, G. Stewardson — Pelagic Entomostraca of Durban Bay 577

Cunntngton, W. A. — Entomostraca of the Albert Nyanza 577

Banta, A. M. — Parthenogenetic Generations of Daphnia : 577

Alm, Gunnar — Northern and Arctic Fresh-water < >stracods 577

Annulata.

Caullery, M. — Parasitic Eunicid 35

Hayden, H. E., Jun. — Species of Pristina .. 35

King. L. A. L. — British Leeches .. •• 35

M'Intosh, W. C. — Studies on Polychsets 147

„ British Marine Annelids 147

Stephenson, J. — Oligochseta from Northern India 147

Ramsay, L. N. G. — Leptonereis glauca Claparc'de 148

Ramsay, Lewis N. G. (the late) — Studies on Polychsets "^54

Potts, F. A.— Atlantic Chxtopterids 255

Caullery, M. — Genus Prionospio 256

Baylis, H. A. — Parasitic Oligocheefe from Gill-chamber of Land Crabs 367

Fauyel, Pierre —Polychsstes collected by the ' Hirondelle ' and ' Princess Alice ' . . 367

Welch, Paul S. — New Species of Henlea 368

Packard, Charles — Effect of Radium on Fertilization in Nereis 480

Lkigh-Sharpe, W. Harold — Leech of the Angler 481

Ryerson, C. G. S. — Hirudinea of Georgian Bay 481

* 'aulleky, M. — Uncini of Annelids 578

Trkadwell, Aaron L. — Pacific Polychaets 578

Eulenstein, F. — Onuphi die of North Sea 578

Izuka, Akira — Pelagic Annelids of Japan 578

Fischer, J. — Sipunculoids of North Sea and Baltic 579

Neoaatohelmintb.es.

Cobb, N. A. — North American Fresh-water Nematodes .. 36

Neveu-Lemaire, M. — Classification of Strongylidx 36

Nicoll. W. — Ankylostomiasis in Dogs 36

Reese, A.M. — Nematode Cyst in Alligator's Stomach 37

Seurat, L. G. — Structure of Female Genital Apparatus in Spiruridse 148

Southern, R. — Nemathelmia and Kinorhyncha of Clare Island 256

Stewart, F. H. — Indian Nematodes 257

Walker, E. L. — Philippine Filar ia 368

Seurat, L. G. — Genus Dermatoxys 368

Nicol, W. — Life-history of Onchocerca 482

Nicoll, William — Migration of Larvse of Onchocerca 579

Hofmanner, B., & R. Menzel — Free-living Nematodes of Switzerland 580

Platyhelmintb.es.

Baylis, H. A. — New Genus of Avian Cestodes 37

Beddard, F. E. — Studies on Cestodes 37

Nicoll, W. — Trematodes of North Queensland 38

, y „ Trematodc Parasites of Fishes from the English Channel 38

Mivairi, K., & M. Sczuki — Intermediate Host of Schistosomum japonicum .. .. 257

xvi CONTENTS.

PAGB

\muci. I. New Trematode 257

Stewart, I-'. II. Structure of New Polystomum - _'">7

Nicoll, William — Trematode Parasites of Australian Birds 257

Beddakd, F. K. — New Genus of Tapeworms 258

Fuhrmann. ("). — Fimoriaria 258

Baylis. H. A. — New Avian Cestode 259

Paulian, Demettre Em. — Toxic. Action of Intestinal Worms :;»J8

Barker, F. D. & — Parsons — New Trematode from Terrapin 369

Whitbhouse, R. H. — Terrestrial Planarians from Abor Country X69

CmLD, C. M. — Effect of Section in Planar i lans 369

., „ Head-regeneration in Pieces of 1 'I anuria 370

Southwell, T. — New Species of Amphi! in a 482

Heddakd, F. E. — Structure of Amubilia 182

( ooper, A. R. — Life-history of Proteocephalus anibloplitis |s:j

Nicoll. W. — Neio Liver-fluke from a Kestrel 4K\

Cooper, A. R. — New Cestode 580

Baylis, H. A. — New Species of Zschokleella 58]

MacCallum, G. A.— New Tremutwles 581

Cort, W. W. — North American Larval Trematodes 582

Incertae Sedis.

Stiasny, G. — Development of Bulanoglossus cluvigeru* 38

Caullery, M. — Enigmatical Animal 259

White, H. T. — Bryozoa of Georgiun Bay :;71

Annandale, Nelson — Austrulellu and Allied Polyzoa :!71

Hett, Mary L. — New Pentasiomids 4So

Rotatoria.

Whitney, David D. — Sex-determination in Hydatina senta o71

S hull, A. Franklin — Inheritance of Hydatina senta :;71

Mitchell, Claude W., & J. H. Powers— Transmission of Induced Churuclen in

Asplanchna amphora 483

Echinoderma.

Fuchs, H. M. — Echinus Hybrids 39

Gemmill, J. F. — Development of Common Starfish 39

Pearson, Joseph — Studies on Holothuroids 40

Koehler, O. — Variability in Hybrid Echinoids 149

Crozier, W. J. — Variability in Bays of Starfish 149

Ortox, J. H. — Notes on Hoi othurians 149

Gemmill, James F. — Abnormal Gills of Porania pulvillns 259

Mortensen, Th. — Development of some Japanese Echinoderms 259

Robert, A. — Tetramerous Sea-Urchin 260

Koehler, Rene — Indian Ocean Spa tang idse 260

Gemmill, James F. — dilution of Aster ids :;72

Lillie, Frank R. — Mechanism of Fertilization in Arbacia 374

Gemmill, James F. — Larva of Porania pulvillus 484

„ „ Asteroid Larvae .. .. 485

CONTENTS. XVI]

PAGB

Gemmill. James^F. — Double, Hyilrocoele of Starfish Larva 485

„ „ Twin Gastrulx and Bipinnarise of Luidia sarsi 486

Child, C. M. — Axial Gradients in Early Development of Starfish 486

Painter, Theophilus 8. — Experimental Study of Cleavage in Sea-urchin Ova . . 486

Dustin, A. P. — Artificial Parthenogenesis of Sea-urchin Ova 582

Braohet, A. — Activation of Sea-urchin Ova 582

Ccelentera.

Light, S. F. — Nero Alcyonar ian Genus 41

,, Philippine Scyphomedusm 41

Broch, Hjalmar — Stylasterids 42

Bali:. W. M. — Hydroids of the Great Australian Bight 42

Morgan. W. de, & G. H. Drew — Restitution Masses formed by the Dissociated Cells

of Hydroids 42

Warren, Ernest — Development of Plumularian Planula 150

Gravier, Ch. J. — Remarkable Longitudinal Scissiparity in a Madrepore .. .. 150

Mayer, A. G. — Nerve Conductivity in Cassiopea 151

„ Law Governing Loss of Weight in Starving Medusae 151

Briggs, E. A. — Australian Alcyonarians 261

Thomson, J. Stuart — Pennahdacese of the Cape of Good Hope and Natal .. .. 261

Gravier, Ch. — Madrepore Corals from Great Depths 261

A.RNuLD, G., & C. L. Boulenger — Fresh-water Medusoid from Limpopo River

System 261

Plessis, George dd (the late) — Fresh- water i I ydromedusoid 262

v lachar, Thomas — Development of Mesenteries in Anthozoa .. .. .. .. 375

Broch, Hjalmar — Gonophores of Tubularidse 375

Rees, Oliven M. — Comparative Anatomy of »ome British Actinix 487

Elmhirst, Ricahrd — Notes on Anemones 583

Bigelow. Henry B. — Note on Medusan Genus Stomolophus 583

Nutting, Charles Cleveland — American Hydroids 584

Porifera.

Annandale, Nelson — Sponges of Lake Baikal 152

Ferrer, F. — New Sponges 152

Dendy, Arthur — Gametogenesis of Grantia compressa 262

,, „ Aphroceras cliarensis at Plymouth 264

Annandale, N. — Symbiotic Sponges 264

Annandale, Nelson — Indian Clionidse 376

Hernandez, Francisco Ferrer — Sponges of Spain 376

Muller, Karl — Gemmules of Ficulina and other Sponges 487

Annandale, Nelson — Pectispongilla 48S

Stephens, Jane — Sponges of the Coasts of Ireland 584

Protozoa.

MacKinnon, Doris L. — Amoeba of Larval Tipula 43

Martin, C. H., & K. R. Lewin — Notes on Soil Protozoa 43

Hoogenraad, H. R. — Rhizopods and Heliozoa, from Fresh-water in Holland .- 44

Jameson, A. Pringle — New Phytofiagellate and its Division 44

Dec. 15th, 1915 b

XV111 CONTENTS.

I-A'.K

Ddnkerly, J. S. — Dermocystidium pusula Parasitic on Trout 44

Woodcock, H. M. — Development of Try /nuiosoma noctuse in the Gnat 15

Chatton, Ed., & G. Blanc— New Hxmatozoon 45

Heron-Allen, Edward, & Arthur Earland — Foramiuifera from Portuguese

East Africa 153

Hedges, K. E. — Conjugation in Amaiba 154

Rousselet, C. F. — African Species of Vol vox 154

Bruce, Sir David, & others — Trypanosoma brucei 155

Erdmann, Rh. — Sarcocystis muris 155

Caullery, M., & F. Mesnil — Dicystid Gregarines of Polychsetes 155

Woodruff, Lorende Loss, & Rhoda Erdmann — Periodic Reorganization in

Paramecium 264

Calkins, Gary N. — Cycles and Rhythms in Paramecium 265

Metcalf, Maynard M. — Chromosomes in Opalina 266

Arnold, G., & C. L. Boulenger — Infusorian Parasitic on Fresh-water Medusoid . . 267

Pavillard, M. — Scissiparity in Peridinidse 267

Smith. John — Upper Silurian Foramiuifera of Gothland 268

Laveran, A. — Leishmaniasis of Dogs 268

Erdmann, Rhoda — Schizogony in Sarcocystis mur is 268

Shumw ay, Waldo — Effect of Thyroid on Division Rate of Paramecium 376

Lund, E. J. — Feeding Reactions of Bursaria 377

„ „ Digestion in Bursaria 377

Walton, L. B. — Review of Euglenoidina 378

Chapman, Frederick — Foraminifera from Australian Coast 379

Pixell-Goodrich, Helen L. M. — Sporozoa of Spatangoids 379

Ellis, Max M. — New Acanthosporid Gregarine 379

Yakimoff, W. L., & N. F. Schockov — Cutaneous Leishmaniasis 380

Mavor, J. W. — Sporozoa of Canadian Fishes 380

Baitsell, G. A. — Reproduction of Hypotrichous Infusorians 488

Heron-Allen, E. — Architecture of Foraminifer Shells 488

„ „ Bionomics and Reproductive Processes in Foraminifera .. .. 489

Mackinnon, Doris L. — Studies on Parasitic Protozoa 490

Stevenson, A. C. — Klossiella muris 490

Dobell, Clifford — Genetics of Cil late Protozoa 584-

Thomson, J. D. — Rat Trypanosomes in relation to the Rat-flea 587

CONTENTS. XIX

BOTANY.

GENERAL,
Including' the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Cytology,
Including- Cell-contents.

PAGE

East, E. M. — Chromosomes and Heredity 589

Structure and Development.

Vegetative.

Breakwell, E. — Leaf-anatomy of Andropogon 46

Hamilton, A. G. — Xerophilous Characters of Hahea 16

Trulzsch, O. — Dorsiventrality in Ficus 1-Y7

Hall, C. — Evolution of Eucalyptus 269

Brown, H. P. — Growth-studies in White or Weymouth Pine {Pinus strobus) .. .. 269

I.rown, F. B. H. — Bay-pits of Conifers 589

Reproductive.

Schips, M. — Mechanism of Anther-dehiscence 47

Crocker, W., & W. E. Davis — Delayed Germination of Alisma 47

Harris, J. A. — Ovules and Seeds of Cercis 158

Lloyd, F. E. — Absorption in Ovules of Scrophularia 381

MacDougal, D. T.— Alterations induced by Treatment of Ovary 3S1

Thomas, H. H. — Male Flower of Williamsonia 590

Tokugawa, Y. — Physiology of Pollen 591

Sirks, M. J. — Nature of Peloria 591

Vegetative and Reproductive.
Gcignard, M. — Pollen-formation 191

General.

Magnus, V? —Plant-Relationships 271

Thomas, F. A. W. — " Llizabeth-Linnseus Phenomenon" 382

Gates, R. R.— Modification by Crossing 592

b2

XX CONTENTS.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

PAU B

Sharp, L. W. — Spermatogenesis in Manilla 48

Borrell, W. H. — Azolla filiouloides 4!t

Chkistensen, C. — Dryopteris 50

Watts, W. W. — Ferns of Lord Howt Island 50

Petry. L. C. — Opln'or/lossum pendulum .. .. , 158

Woynar, H. — Position of Buds in Botrychium 158

Black, Caroline A. — Branched Cells in Prothallium of Onoclea 159

Nishida, S. — Water-glands in Equisetum 159

Orr, M. Y.— Distribution of Pihdaria 159

Campbell, D. H. — Structure and Affinities of Macroglossum Alidse 272

Marsh, A. S. — Anatomy of Cheilanthes and Pellsea 273

Lang, W. H. — Anatomy of Helminthostachys 273

Allison, Harriet E. — Bhizome of PI aty cerium 274

Lang, W, H. — Morphology of Isoetes 274

Bancroft, N. — Vegetative Beproduction in Selaginella 274

Steil, W. N. — Apogamy in Nephrodium hirtipes 275

Menezes, C. A. de — Ferns of Madeira .. 275

Copeland, E. B., & others— Hawaiian Ferns 275

Petry. L. C. — Branching in the Ophioglossaceze 382

Maxon, W. R. — Polypodium marginellum and its Allies 383

Takeda, H.— Asiatic Species of Polypodium .. 383

Maxon. \V. R.— Ferns of the Andes 384

Lindsey, Marjorie — Branching and Branch-shedding of Bothrodendron .. .. 491

Jossa, M. — Vascular Development in Osmundacex and Gleicheniaeex 492

Browne, Isabel MP. — Anatomy of Cone of Equisetum 492

Borkowski, E. — Anatomy of Soidh American Ferns 493

Hayata, B. — Pteridophyta of Formosa 4'.»3

West, C. — Secretory Tissues of Marattiaceas 592

Vouk, V. — Phyllitis hybrid a .. 593

Bokaparte, Eoland — Pteridophyta of New Caledonia 593

Bryophyta.

McCormick, Florence A. — Morphology and Development of Symphyogyna .. .. 5o

Howe, M. A. — Oxymitra in North America 51

Husnot, T. — Marsupella 51

Trabut, L. — Bryum tophaceum 51

Caudot, J. — Bylocomiopsis 52

CoRBiEi.E, L. — Hypnum lusitanicum in Finistn-e 52

Amann, J. — FilicoloHs Hypoterygium 52

Culmann, P. — Orthotrichum tomentosum 52

Corbiere, L. — Bryophyies of Morocco 52

Evans, A. W. — North American Hepaticx 53

Cardot, J. — Mexican Mosses 53

CONTENTS. xxi

Piskernik, A. — Protoplasmic Connexion in Mosses 160

Rancken, H. — Starch in Bryophytes l*;o

Glowacki, J. — New Antitrichia 161

Stirton, J. — New Mosses from West Ross-shire 161

Prokaska, K. — Moss Flora of Carinthia l»;i

Zmuda, A. J. — Post-glacial Mosses of Cracow 162

Schiffner, V. — Bryophyta of the Near East 162

Andrews, A. Le Roy, & others — North American Mosses \W1

Evans, A. W. — Hepaticm of Alaska .. .. 163

Dixon, H. N. — Dicranacese of New Zealand 16:;

Stephani, F., & W. W. Watts— Australasian Hepaticm 163

Dixon, H. N. — Bryological Notes 164

Kashyap, S. R. — Morphology of West Himalayan Liverworts 276

Both, 6. — Bare European Mosses 276

Winter, H. — Mosses of Madeira and Teneriffe 276

Britton, Elizabeth G., & H. Hollick — New American Fossil Moss 277

Britton, Elizabeth G. — West Indian Mosses 277

Dixon, H.N. — Australasian Mosses 277

Dietzow, L. — Cratoneuron filicinum 277

Nicholson, W. E. — Lepidozia sylvatica in Britain 277

Stirton, J.— Mosses of West Highlands 278

Fleischer, M.— Critical Revision of Carl Midler's Moss Genera 278

Bryan, G. S. — Archegonium of Sphagnum subsecundum 384

Evans, A. W. — Plagiochasma 385

Lesage, P. — Pedicel of Lunularia vulgaris 385

Jensen, C. — Bryophyta of Denmark „ .. 385

Ingham. W. — Moss Exchange Club 386

O'Keeppe, Lillian — Targioniahypophylla 494

Hagen, I. — Polytrichacem 494

Ambroz, J. — Drepanocltdus 495

Melin, E. — Vegetative Reproduction of Sphagnum 495

„ Sphagnum in Sweden ,.. 496

Woodbcrn, W. L. — Spermatogenesis in Mnium 593

Wilson. M. — Sex Determination in Mnium hornum 594

IIudgetts, W. J.— Flattened Protonema of Tetraphis 594

Hutchinson. A. H.— Gametophyte of Pel Ha epiphylla 595

Gyorffy, I. — Ephemeropsis tjibodensis 595

Loeske, L. — Scapania paludicola 596

Melin, E. — Sphagnum modified by Cold Water 596

Gyorffy, I. — Pleurozyijodon sibiricum a Molendoa 597

Ljubitzkaja, L. — Forms of Leucobryum glaucum 597

Harris, G. T. — Microscopical Methods in Bryological Work 597

Stiutox, J. — New Mosses from West Ross- shire 597

Lett, H. W. — Census of Irish Mosses 598

Perbbon, H. — Mosses of J amtl and 598

Si hiffner, V. — Hepaticm from Hungary and Croatia 598

Evans, A. W. — North American Hepaticm '. 598

Williams, R. S. — Mosses of West Coast of South America 599

Theriot, I., & F. Stephani — Bryophyta of New Caledonia 599

XXU CONTENTS.

Thallophyta.
Alg-ae.

PAGE

Transeatj, E. N. — North American Fresh-water Alga: 53

Price, S. R. — Batrachospermum 53

Setchell, W. A. — Scinaia 54

Hariot, P. — Marine Flora of Tatihou and of St. Vaast-la-llogw 54

Desrociie, P. — Morphological Observations on Volvocacex 164

Viriei'x, J. — Reproduction of Peridinium Westii 164

Janet. C. — Alternation of Generation in Algae 165

Mendreka, S. — Saprophytic Algae 165

Rouppert, K. — Flagellates Inhabiting Plankton Diatoms 165

Malinowski, E. — Ceralium hirundinella 165

Viriebx. J. — Algae and Per id inieae from the Jura 166

Swirenko, D. — Flagellatae of Charkow 166

Reinhard, L. von — Russian phytoplankton 166

Filarzky. F.. & A. Scherffel — Two New Species of Characium 166

Handmann, R. — Diatoms of Upper Austria 167

Bailey, L. W. — Diatoms of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island 167

Printz. H. — Norwegian Protococcoideae 167

Cayeux, L. — Oolithic Perforating Algae 168

Winge, O. — Sargasso Sea 168

Mazza, A. — Marine Algology 168

Chemin, E. — Projection of Marine Algae .. .. 168

Tascher, A. — Symbiosis of Bacteria and Flagellates with Gyanophyceae 279

Kolkwitz, R. — Water-blooms 279

Plumecee, D. — Water -bloom of Gonium pectorale 279

Lemmermann, E. — Brandenburg Algae 280

Brehm, V.— Problems of a Modern Study of Plankton 280

Allen. E.J. — Culture of a Plankton Diatom 280

Sti a sn y. G.— Marine Plankton 280

Fritsoh, F. E. — British Flagellatae 281

Turner, C. — Organisms of Manchester Water-supply 2S1

West, G. S. — British Fresh-water Algae 281

Walton, L. B. — Euglena oxyuris 281

Lemmermann, E. — Algological Notes 282

Groves, J. — New European Ni tell a 282

Gluck, H.— New Fossil Alga 282

Rothpletz, A. — Fossil Algae, 283

Schussnig, B. — The Swollen Cells in Antith amnion 283

., ,. Ceramothamnion adriaticum 283

Killian, K. — Development of Certain Florideae 284

Samsonoff, C. — Fossil Corallinaceae 2S4

Narita, S. — Marine Algx of Japan 285

Cotton, A. D. — Edible Japanese Seaweed 285

Farlow, W. G. — Vegetation of Sargasso Sea 2S5

Delf, E. M. — Algae of Hampstead Heath 386

Scherffel, A. — Algological Notes on the Hohe Tatra 386

Harshberger, J. W. — Algx Stalactites in Bermuda 386

Skottsberg, 0. — Pylaiella Pcstelsim 387

CONTENTS. XXlll

PAGE

Sauvageau, C. — Saccorhiza bulbosa 387

„ „ New Species of Fucns 388

Gard, M. — Hybrid Fucus 389

Vouk, V. — Phytobenthos of Quarnero 389

Okamuka, K. — Japanese Algse 389

Cotton, A. D.— Chinese Marine Alia?. 389

Mazza, A. — Marine Algse 389

Reed, G. B. — Oxidases in Algse. 389

Ostenfeld. C. H. — Plankton of the Danish Seas 496

Woloszynska, I. — Phytoplankton of Victoria Nyanza 497

Reichelt, H., & F. Schucht — Bacillarise. of the Lower Elbe 497

Hoffman, K. — Bohemian Bacillariese , .. 498

Schroder, B. — Plankton Epiphytes 498

Zimmermann, C. — Diatoms of Portugal and Mozambique 498

Kaufmann, H. — Development of CylindrocyHis 498

Xitardy — Pediastrum .. .. 499

Prat, S. — Trentepohlia annulata in Moravia 499

Morellet, L. & J. — Tertiary DasydadaceK from the Paris Basin 499

Brat, G. — Bohemian Algse 500

Kyltn, H. — Swedish Marine Algse 500

Votava, A. — Cell -contents and Membrane of Characese 500

Griffiths, B. Millard — Glaucocystis nostochinearum 599

Grove, W. B. — Pleodorina illinoiensis in Britain 600

Coditz, F. V.— Plankton of the Mansfield Lake 600

Lantzsch, K. — Nanno-plankton of the Lake of Zug 601

Schiller, .1. — Plankton of the Adriatic 601

„ Biological Conditions of the Adriatic Flora 601

1'layfair, G. I. — Trachelomonas 602

Htjstedt, F. — German Diatoms 602

Bouyier. W. — Diatoms af Steiermark 602

Kurssanow, L. — Nuclear Division in Vaucheria 602

West, (r. S., & Clara B. Starkey — Cytology of Zygnema ericetorum 603

Ljdngqvist, J. E. — Mgagropi I a Formations 603

Cammerloher, H. — Green Algse of the Adriatic 604

Wilczek, A. — Algse from the Neighbourhood of Greifswald 604

Kylin, H.— '' Blasen-zelleu" of certain Floridese 604

Mazza, A. — Oceanic Algol ogy 605

Cameron, F. K.— Kelps of West Coast of America 605

Lindau, G. — Algse for Beginners 606

Leinburg, M. von — The Thai assioscope 606

Fungi.

Thaxter, K.—New or Peculiar Zygomycetes 55

Tonghini, Clodomiro C, & Roland Thaxter— Studies of Laboulbeniacese . . 55

Hiltner, L. — Outbreak of Rust on Winter Grain in Bavaria 56

Cheel, Edwin— Fungi of New South Wales 57

Osborne, T. G. B.— Fungi in South Australia 57

Buller & Cameron — Suspended Vitality in Fungi 58

Bancroft, C. K., & others — Fungus Diseases of Plants 58

Osborne, T. G. B.— Fungus Diseases in South Australia 58

XXIV CONTENTS.

PAOB

Coker, W. C. — New Saprolegniaceie 1*38

Ahnahd. G. — Haustoria of Meliola and Asterina 169

Beaver, F. J. — Alewia and Alewrina 169

Burt, E. A. — Thelephoracese of North America 169

Graves, A. H.— Parasitism of Mymenochxte agglutinane 17<>

Bresadola, G, & H. Sydow — Enumeration of Philippine Basidiomycetes .. .. 170

Fragoso, R. G. — New or Hare Spanish. Fungi 170

Salmon, E. S., & others — Plant Diseases 170

Kayner, M. (Jheveley — Mycorhiza of Calluna 172

Petch, T. — The Genera Hy poor ella and Aschersonia 285

Stone, R. E. — Study of Ascochyta on some Leguminous Plants 286

Heald, F. D., & Studhalter — Longevity of Spores 286

Weir, J. R. — Abortive Sporophores of Wood-destroying Fungi -86

Drayton, F. L., & others — Rhizoctonia -87

Saccardo, P. A. — Italian Fungus Flora .. .. - s 7

Boyd, D. A., & others — Scotch Microfnngi 287

Hall, J. G. — Washington Fungi ^88

Gaia, L. — Fungi of Padua 288

Sutherland, G. K. — New Marine Fungi on Pelvetia 288

Ames, Adeline — Temperature Relation* of Fungi 288

Reavenall, A. C. — Fermentative Agents 289

Tabramine, J. — Enzymes of Aspergillus Oryzse 289

Rumbold, Caroline, & Roy G.Pierce — Notes on Chestnut Fungus 289

Harter, L. L. — Diseases of Siveet Potato 289

Hector, J. M.. — Silver-leaf Disease 290

Treatment of Potato Wart Disease 290

Oidium on Citrus Trees 390

Ibos, Joseph — Hibernation of Vine Mildew -390

Seaver, F. J.— Study of Peziza 390

Lloyd, C. G. — Australian Cordyceps 390

Ramsbottom, J. — Notes on Ascomycetes 391

Welsford, E. J. — Nuclear Migration in Phragmidium violaceum 391

Arthur, J. O. — Cultures of Uredinese :; '-'l

Stewart, F. C, & others — Uredinese 391

Potter, Alden A., & P. B. Pole-Evans— Smut of Sorghum 392

Conard, Henry S. — Secotium agaricoides 392

Lloyd, C. G.— Study of 1 "omes 392

Ramsbottom, J. — Cytology of Fungi 393

Elliott, J. S. Bayliss — Fungi in the Nests of Ants 393

Buller, Reginald — British Mycology 393

Ellis, J. W.— New British Microfungi 394

Wakefield, E. M., & others — New British Fungi 394

Fragoso, Romualdo Gogzalez— Spanish Microfungi 394

Pethybridge, G. K., & others — Diseases of Plants 394

Hanzawa, J. — Rhizopus Species 5<>0

Kita, G. — Syncephala strum racemosum -'01

Buren, Gunther von — Protomi/cetes of Switzerland »01

Ramlow, G. — Development in Ascoboliv 501

Boas, F. — New Coremium Penicillium 502

Thom, C. — Notes on Penicillium 502

Peyroxel, B. — Critical Notes on Species of Dicuma 502

CONTENTS. XXV

PAGE

Wolk, P. C. van der — Stagmospora citsmivx 502

Dietf.l, P., & others— Uredinete ."i()2

Atkinson, Or. F. — Development of Amanitopsis vaginata 503

Mukrtll, W. A.— Luminosity in Fungi 504

Zeller. S. M. — Cryptoporus volva.tus 504

Juel, H. 0. — The Genus Muciporus 504

Ranogevic, N., & others — Contributions to Fungus Floras 504

Patouillard, N. — Philippine Fungi 505

Cleland, J. Burton, & Edwin Cheel — Notes on Australian Fungi 505

Bkooks, F. T., & others — Plant Diseases ^ 50.1

Kominiani, K. — Zygorhynchus japonicus 606

Chivers, F. H. — Chxtomium and Ascotricha 606

Sutherland, G. K.— Marine Pyrenomycetes 607

Brown, W. H. — Pyronema confluens Tul. var. inigneum Frown 607

Fink, Bruce, & C.Audrey Richards — Ascomycetes of Ohio 607

Schramm, R.— Degenerate Form of Aspergillus niger 607

Thom. Ch., & G. W. Turesson — Penici Ilium avellaneum sp.n. 608

Ludwig, C. A., & others— American Rusts 608

Arthur, J. C—Uredinese of Porto Rico 608

Saccardo & others — Distinction between Coniothyrium pirinum andPhyllosticta

pirina .. .. - . , 609

Murrill, W. A. — American Basidiomijcetes 609

Lloyd, C. G.— Synopsis of Pob/porus 609

Rea, Carleton— Woodland Fungi 609

Atkinson, G. F.— Homology of the" Universal Veil" in Agaricus 609

Brown, W.E.— Studies in the Physiolouy of Parasitism 610

Scales, F. M. — Fungi as Cellulose Destroyers 610

Hanzawa, Jun — Diseases of Onions 610

Molnar, Gy.. & others— Diseases of Plants 611

Lichens.

Paulson, Robert. & Somerville Hastings — British Wandering Lichen .. .. 59

Cheel, Edwin— Lichens of New South Wales 60

Bachmann, E. — Lichen Flora of the Frzgebirge 60

Howe, Heber — American Species of Ramalina 61

Merril, G. K. — Noteworthy Lichens from Maine 61

Howe, R. Heber — Nomenclature of the Genus Usnea 61

Hasse, H. E., & Lincoln W. Riddle— American Lichenology 291

Mobeau, Fernand — Development of the Ascogonium in Peltigera 396

Hue, A.— New Lichens 506

Wheldon, J. A., & Albert Wilson— Lichens of Perthshire 613

McLean, R. C— Ecological Study of Lichens .. .'. 613

Zanfrogmni, Carlo— Caloplaca citrina 613

Mycetozoa.
Lister, Gulielm a— Japanese Mycetozoa 397

XXV] CONTEXTS.

Schi zophyta.
Schizomycetes.

PAGE

1'iaz. E. — Endemic Adenomycosis 61

Bowlby. Sir A., & S. Rowland — Report on Gfas Gangrene 62

Warner. Charlotte E. — Thermoprecipitin Method in Diagnosis of Plague Cadavers 62

I'iiilibkrt, A. — Human and Hat Leprosy 63

Saktoky. A., & Ph. Lasseur — New Pathogenic Oospora (Oospora lyronchialis) .. 63

I>i>yen & Vamanoochi — Bacterial Flora of Wound* 64

Weinberg, M. — Bacterial Researches on Gas Gangrene 64

VoiSENET, E. — Ferment contained in Water 64

Kling, C. A. — Bacillus hi fill us in the Intestinal Canal 64

Nadson, G. A. — Sulphur Bacteria 65

Blier, J. — Spirochetosis of the Bovine Hemoglobinuria of Chile 65

Greig-Smith, Pi. — Bacferiotoxic Action of Water 173

„ Destruction of Paraffin by Bacillus prodigiosus and Soil-organisms 173

Berthelot, A. — Proteus vulgaris 174

Forgeot, P. — Contribution to the Study of the Gonococcus 174

Santory, A., & L. Spillmann — Bacteriology of Gas Gangrene 174

Simonds, J. P. — Classification of Bacillus Welchii 174

Johnston. J. A. — Bacteriology of Leprosy 175

Krainsky, A. — Significance of the Actinomycetes in Nature 175

Mair, W. — Scarlet Fever in the Monkey 175

Codpin, H. — Torula marina 176

Fremlin, H. S.— Nitroso- Bacteria 176

Daumezon, G. — Potato a>id Friedlaender's Bacillus 177

Distaso, A. — Bacillus isolated from a Case of Sprue 291

Rowland, S. — Variations in the Antigen of the Plague Bacillus 291

Bacot, A. W. — Development of Bacillus pestis in Bugs 292

Bourke, E. A., & others— A utogenous Living Vaccine in the Treatment of Enteric

Fever 292

Dreyer, G., & others — Typhoid and Paratyphoid Infection in Relation to Anti-
typhoid Inoculation 293

Miller, A. H. — Sperm Oil Tubercle Bacilli 294

Arnaud, G. — Bacterium of Gummy Beet-roots 294

Marbais, S. — Disappearance of the Spores of Bacillus per fringens from the Fxces of

Immunized Monkeys 295

W einberg, M. — Researches in Gas Gangrene 295

Sartory, A., & P Lasseur — New Pathogenic Yeast (Saccharomyces Lammon-

nieri sp.n.) .. .. , 295

„ „ „ New Pyogenic Bacillus 296

Coupin. H. — Behaviour of Marine Bacteria to Salt 296

Sartory, A.. & P. Lasseur — Citrate of Soda and Agglutination of Bacillus typhosus 297

Perotti, R. — Morphological Variation of Mycoderma vini 297

Goodey, T. — Protozoa in relation to the Factor limiting Bacterise Activity in Soil 397

Weinberg, B. — Gas Ganqrene due to the Vibrion septique 398

Orticoni, A. — Bacillus perfringens and Gas Gangrene 398

Reyerchon, H. L.. & E. Vaccher — The Constancy of the Association of B. per-
fringens and G a* Gangrene 398

Birnet, E. — Virulence of Tubercle Bacilli 398

I

CONTENTS. xxvil

TAG P.

Lai* soy, L., & M. Levy-Bbuhx — The Resistance of Fowl to Infection with Spiro-

cheeta gallinarum 399

Nicolle, M., & others — Studies on Bacillus cedematis maligni and Bacillus

chauveei 399

Eraser, H., & W. Fletohbb — Leprosy and Kedrowsky's Bacillus 400

Donaldson, R. — Etiological Factor in Cerebrospinal Fever 400

Besbedka,A. — Coccobacillus verodunensis 401

Maze, P. — Formic Acid Fermentation 507

Costa, S., & J. Tboisieb — Fatal Gas-gangrene caused by the Bacillus *' Neigeux" 507

Sacquepee, E. — Bacteriology of Malignant (Edema 507

Weinberg, W., & P. Secuin — Biological Researches on the Eosinophils 508

Aoki, K., & Y. Chegasaki — " Sottdi" Bacillus of Silkworms 509

Kato, Y. — Leptothrix in Pure Culture 509

Greig-Smith, R. — Bacillus hemiphloise 510

Urailovsky-Lodnkevitch, Z. A. — Bacterial Flora of the Normal Mouth .. .. 614
1'iirtier, M. P. — Resistance to Chemical Agents of Certain Strains of Bacillus

subtilis 614

Costa, S., & J. Troisier — Intermediate Croup of Anaerobes in War Wounds . . 615

Russell, E. J. — Soil Protozoa and Soil Bacteria 615

I 'lotz, H., & others — Etiology if Typhus Fever 616

d'Herelle. F. — Destruction of Locusts by Biological Means 616

Peglion, V. — Disease if the Tomato 617

xxvin CONTENTS.

MICROSCOPY.
A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.

(1) Stands. iagk

Cambridge Scientific Instbcment Co. — Small Comparator (Fig. 2) 66

Spencer Lens Co. — Yew Spencer Portable Microscope (Figs. :i-5) 68

Stead, J. E. — Swifts' Sideros Metallurgical Microscope (Fig. 16) 178

Bibliography .. ..• 178

Gbabham, G. — Swift and Son'* " Improved Dick " Petrologi<al Microscope (Khartum

Model) (Fig. 30) ' 298

C. Bakee's Stands D A and D (Figs. 41), 50) 402

D.P.H. No. la Microscope (Fig. 51) 104

„ Student 's Microscope (Fig. 52) 406

Wheret, E. T. — Microspectroscope in Mineralogy 512

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Nelson, E. M. — Zeiss' New Object-glass, and a New Method of Illumination .. .. 178

Steong, J. — Novel Pseudoscopic Eye-piece .. .'. . . • 512

Gordon, J. W. — Zeiss' " New" Object-glass 512

(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus.

Hutchinson Co-ordinate Micrometer (Fig. 17) 180

Wateb-heated Stage (Fig. 18) 181

Hutchinson's Universal Goniometer (Fig. 31) 298

C. Bakee's Electric Lamp (Fig. 53) 400

„ Portable Battery Lamp (Fig. 54) 406

Watson-Bakeb, \V. E. — Magnesium Flash-light for Zoological Worlt 513

Salkind, J. — Chromoscopic Filter 618

Shattock, S. G. — Adaptable Eye-shade for Microscopic Use (Fig. 65) 019

(4) Photomicrography.

Kelleeman, K. F. — Freedom from Vibration for Photomicrography 69

Baenabd, J. E. — Colour Screens 301

Bibliogeaphy 513

(51 Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Gage, S. H. & H. P.— Optic Projection 70

Weight, F. E. — Optical Character of the Faint Interference-figure observed in High-
power Objectives between Crossed Nicols 181

CONTENTS. XXIX

I'AGB

Wright, F. E. — New Half-shade Apparatus with Variable Sensibility 182

„ Determination of the Relative Refringence of Mineral Grains under

the Petrographic Microscope (Fig. ID) 182

Gordon, J. W. — Theory of Diffraction in Relation to the Theory of Optic* . . .. 513
Wright, F. E. — Accurate Measurement of the Refractive Indices of Minute Crystal

Grains under the Petrographic Microscope 514

(6) Miscellaneous.

Batsch's " Test acea Arenulas" 1791 71

Scunkiderhohn, H. — Apparatus and Practical Methods for the Microscopical

Examination of Crystalline Bodies 71

Bibliography 185

Beale, W. P. — An Amateur's Introduction to Crystallography .. 302

Ptrsson, L. V. — Microscopical Cliaracters of Volcanic Tuffs: a Study for Students 620

B. Technique.

CD Collecting: Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Barber. M. A. — Pipette Method in the Isolation of Single Micro-organisms

(Figs. 6-9) 71

Cromwell, B. C. — Diagnosis of Asiatic Cholera 76

Schill & K. Ujihara — Studies in Amoebic Dysentery 185

Schmidt. G. — Simple Cultural Method of Distinguishing Diphtheria from Pseudo-
Diphtheria Bacilli 186

Smyth, H. F. — New Medium for the Cultivation of Chick Tissues in Vitro .. .. 186

Menzies, J. A. — Preparation of Haematin 186

Petroff. S. A. — Cultivation of Tubercle Bacilli from Sputum and Fasces .. . . 187
Danysz. J., & Z. Skrzynski — Immunization of Rodents against Naturally Pathogenic

Paratyphoid Organisms 188

Richet, — Adaptation of Lactose Fermenting Organisms to the Medium in which

they are grown 188

Cheyne, W. W. — Testing Antiseptics .. .. 189

Hall, J. Walker — Purification of Silk Pepton for Bacteriological Purposes .. . . 191

Hiltox, A. E. — Cultivation of Plasmodia of Bodhamia TJtricularis (Fig. 20) .. .. 191

Banta, A. M.— New Collecting Tube (Fig. 21) 192

Minchin, E. A., & J. D. Thomson — Demonstrating the Development of Trypanosoma

lewisi in the Rat-flea 192

Mchlens — Detection of Trypanosomes in Animals 302

Dreyer, &., & others — Detection and Identification of Bacillus typhosus and

B. paratyphosus 302

Laidlaw, P. P. — Some Simple Anaerobic, Methods 304

Meek. C. F. V. — Studying the Mitotic Spindle in the Spermatocytes of Forficula

auricularia 306

Stassano, H. — New Method of Sterilizing Bacterial Cultures 407

Parhon, C. J., & E. Savini — Thyroid and Supra-renal Glands as Bacterid Culture

Media 408

Lentz, O.. & H. Yiolle — Culture Media for the Isolation of Cholera 515

Bottomley, "W. B. — Bacterial Test for Plant Food Accessories (Auximones) .. 620

XXX CONTENTS.

Botez, A. — Methyl-violet as a Mean* of Differentiating the Coli-typhoid Group .. 62]

Kendall, O. — Method of Collecting Diatom* from Surface of Mud 621

Delta, 0. G. — Useful Medium for the Bacteriological Examination of Feeces .. .. 622

Faroy, G., & ( 'iiavaillon— New Medium for the Culture of the Meningococcus .. 622

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Thomas, H. H., & W.C.Smith — Crystal-grinding Apparatus (Fig. 32) .. .. 306
Pixell-Goodrich, Helen L. M. — Investigating the Life-hi*tory of the Sporozoa of

Spatangoids 308

Pettigrew, K. — Preparation of Crystals 623

Flatters, A. — Preparation of Chick Embryos 623

Cobb. Margaret V. — Collection and Preparation of I-'resh-ivater Nematodes.. .. 624

Latham, Vida Annette — New Method of Examining Stools for Eggs 625

(3) Cutting-, including- Embedding- and Microtomes-

Spencer Lens Co. — Neio Spencer Rotary Microtome (Figs. 10-13) 76

McClung, C. E. — New Spencer Cylindrical Bibbon- carrier (Fig. 14) 80

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Marshall, Alexander — Method of Staining Parasitic Amoebse 81

Humphrey, Lilian E. — Cytology of the Stamens of Smilax herbacea 81

Przesmycky, A. M. — Vital Staining of the Nucleus 308

Przesmycki, A. M. — Vital-staining with the Free Base of Neutral Bed 408

MacNgal, W. J., & P. A. Schule — Neiv Staining Methods for Blood Smears .. ."'16

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, etc,

Miles-Carter, H. — Mounting Diatoms hi Oil of Cassia l!t:;

Wieman, H. L. — Euparal 625

(6) Miscellaneous.

Ochoterena, J. — Elements of Microscopical Technique and Vegetable Histology .. 193
Smith, G. M. — Development of Botanical Microtechnique 626

Metallography, etc.

Thompson, F. C. — Metallography of German Silver S3

Garbert, P. — Artificial Twin Crystals in Tin 83

Heycock, C. T., & F. H. Neville — Dilute Sohdions of Aluminium in Gold .. . . 84

Strauss, B. — Nitrogen in Steel 84

Porteyin, A. M. — Decarburization of Steels in Salt Baths 85

Tinsley, J. F. — Heat-treatment of Steel Wire 85

Campbell, E. D. — Theory of Hardening and Constitution of Steel 85

Petrenko, G. I. — Polymorphism of Zinc 194

I oXTENTS. XXXl

PAGK

Bengough, G. D., & D. Hanson — Tensile Properties of Copper at High Tempera-
tures 194

Johnson, F. — Annealing of Brass 194

Meneghini, D. — Embrittling of Brass 195

Bissett,C. C. — Removal of Sulphur from Silver 195

Paukavano, N. — Copper-zinc-lead Alloys 195

Belaiew, N. T. — Widmanstiitten Structure in Alloys 195

Allison. H. B. C, & L. A. Hawkins — Coating Metals with Aluminium Alloy .. 195

Hall, J. H. — Manganese Steel 196

Hannesen, G. — Boron Steels 196

Crowe, E. — Honeycombing in Steel 196

Whiteley, J. H. — Structure of Steel Castings 196

Giolitti, F., & S. Zublena — Slag Inclusions in Steel 197

Babochine, A. L. — Annealing of Tyres 197

Stutzer, O. — Microscopical Investigation of Opaque Minerals 197

Lomax, J. — Microstructure of Coal 198

Guillet, L. — Alloys of Copper and Zinc 309

Huntington, A. K. — Deformation of Copper at High Temperatures 309

Portevin, A. M., & V. Bernard — Coalescence in Steel and in Alloys 309

Guillet, L. — Electrolytic Iron .. 309

Giolitti, F., & G. Tavanti— SVagr Inclusions in Steel 310

Portevin, A. — Mechanical Anistrophy of Metals 310

Evans, S. — Some Metal Failures in Plant 310

Sieverts, A., & W. Wippelmann — Structure of Electrolytically -deposited Copper.. 409

Hudson, O. F. — Critical Point at 460° C. in Zinc-copper Alloys 409

Petrenko, G. J., & A. S. Fedorow — Bismuth-cadmium Alloys 410

Heike, W. — Bismuth-arsenic Alloys 410

Ruff, O.. & others — Manganese-carbon, Nickel-carbon. Iron-carbon, and Cobalt-
carbon Systems 410

Hatfield, W. H. — Malleable Castings 410

Bowman, J. H. — Reduced Metals in Crystallized Form 410

Eitel, W. — Artificial Sillimanite 411

Hanemann, H. — Metal-microscopy vrith Polarized Light 411

Steak, J. E. — Iron, Carbon, and Phosphorus 517

„ ,, Detection of Burning in Steel 518

Rosenhain, W. — Ancient Iron from Ceylon 518

Withrow, E. P., & L. C. Niedner — Lack of Uniformity in Steel Bars 519

Arnold, J. O., & G. E. Bolsover — Sulphides in Steel 519

Job, R. — Internal Fissure in a Steel Axle 519

Adams, F. W. — Diffusion of Carbon in Iron 519

Charpt, G., & A. Coknu-Thenard — Iron-silicon-carbon Alloys 519

Evans, G. S. — Annealing of Grey Iron Castings 519

Hurst, J. E. — Surface-flow 520

Saldau, P. J. — Gohl-cadmium Alloys 520

Eimer & Amend — Preparation of Metal Specimens 520

Haughton, J. L. — Copper-tin Alloys 626

Kowalke, O. H. — Micro- structure of Base-met al Thermocouples 626

Whtte, S. — Micro-chemistry of Corrosion : a-fi Copper-zinc Alloys 627

Rosenhain, W. — Appliances for Metallographic Research 627

Hudson, O. F. — Etching Reagents 627

National Physical Laboratory 628

xxxil CONTENTS.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

I'ai.i:

Mi i tin-. December 16, 1914 87

January 20, 1915 ;»7

„ February 17. ., 199

March 17. ,. 202

April 21, „ :;il

May 19, „ 315

„ June 16, „ 412

., October 20, „ 629

November 17, ,, f,3\

General Index to Volume 635

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. [915. PI. I.

London Etching Co., Ltd,, Eng.

JOURNAL

OK THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

FEBRUARY, 1915.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

I. — X-rays in Relation to Microscopy .
By J. E. Barnard.

(Read December 16, 1914.)
Plate I and Fig. 1.

In the Journal of this Society for August 1913 there appeared an
abstract of a paper by Pierre Goby on the radiography of micro-
scopic objects, the original of which appeared in the Comptes
Rendus previously. I read this paper with considerable interest,
but I must confess that I was disappointed to find that there was
little fresh information to be gained from it. There was much
unnecessary elaboration of apparatus, and essential practical details
were not described. I therefore came to the conclusion that the

Note.— Since reading this paper, I find that in the Comptes Rendus for
January 25, 1897, Radiguet refers to the use of Rontgen rays for obtaining photo-

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig- 1. — Cyclammina cancellata. x 25. This gives such a view of the labyrinthic
wall-structure as could otherwise have been demonstrated only by
means of thin sections.

,, 2. — Operculina complanata. x 20.

,, 3. — Orbiculina adunca. x 25. The species is normally opaque, and the
internal structure is barely visible by incident light.

,, 4. — Astrorhiza arenaria. x 20. The branching tubular body-cavity is
perfectly displayed in spite of the thick encrusting sand of the tubes.

,, 5. — Nodosaria sp. x i5. Illustrating the budding-on of successive cham-
bers ; the mouth of each chamber is seen visibly projecting through
the base of the next.

,, 6. — Foraminifera as dredged (North Sea F.C. ' Goldseeker '). x 40.

Feb. 17th, 1915 B

2 Transactions of the Society,

method was not one which would lead to any important results.
Very soon after this the work of Laue, Friedrich. and Knipping
on the use of X-rays in elucidating the structure of crystals was
described in the scientific press. As a consequence of this, not
only was the molecular structure of crystals exactly demonstrated,
but it was shown that X-rays were in all probability a form of
light, differing only in wave-length. This work was followed up by
Bragg in this country, and it constitutes one of the greatest advances
in physical knowledge that has been made in recent years. The
important facts that X-rays could be reflected from a crystal
surface, that the arrangement of molecules in certain crystals
could be elucidated, and the nature of X-rays themselves deter-
mined, have all arisen from these experiments.

If we examine the position of Microscopy at the present time,
we are confronted with the fact that for the last thirty years, with
one exception, there has been no actual advance in microscopic
optics. We know perfectly well, too, that theory and practice
are almost in agreement : that the optician has been able to produce
lenses so nearly perfect that they almost reach the theoretical
limit. The only method by which any substantial increase in
numerical aperture, and consequent resolution, has been obtained
is by the use of ultra-violet light, the method first devised by
Kohler. The whole optical system is in this case of quartz, and
the source of light is an electric discharge between cadmium or
magnesium electrodes. It is an apparatus which needs consider-
able skill in use, and the results to be obtained by it are in some
respects limited, as ultra-violet light is so easily stopped by
organic substances. Yet it is possible by that method to make
use of an objective which has an effective numerical aperture
of 2 • 5, and resolution is increased substantially, therefore, beyond
the utmost that can be obtained by any other means. It has,
however, not really taken us very much further in practice, partly
owing to the difficulty of using the apparatus, and also because
of its high initial cost.

The method, in fact, while of the greatest interest and utility
— as I have found from my own experience — is not one that
the microscopist may be expected to take up for general use.

graphs of microscopic objects, using the term " microradioscopy." He further
indicates that he had in view the production of a grainless fluorescent screen, the
image on such a screen being magnified so that a direct micro-radiograph is
obtained. For this purpose he used different varieties of glass from the Saint
Gobain manufactory, some of which fluoresced under the influence of X-rays,
while others were opaque. The method, therefore, appears to consist of magnifi-
cation of the fluorescent image, the direct X-rays being stopped by the opaque
variety of glass referred to, which is placed between the fluorescent screen and the
magnifying system. It is doubtful whether such a method could succeed in prac-
tice, as no artificial substance, such as glass, is likely to fluoresce so brightly as
the mineral substances I have experimented with.

X-rays in Relation to Microscopy . By J. E. Barnard. 3

It appears probable that in the present state of knowledge no
advance in Microscopy will be made on optical lines, but if it
is possible to utilize some new source of energy, then there is
some hope that advances may be made — advances, I venture to
say, that are at present beyond our imagination. We shall, as a
result, be able to go far beyond the limits that at present seem so
impenetrable.

On reading carefully the records of the work referred to on
X-rays and crystal structure, I was at once impressed with the idea
that, if we could in any way use X-rays as a source of energy for
microscopical work it would take us a great deal further. X-rays
are in order of wave-length something like one-thousandth that
of the Schumann waves in the ultra-violet spectrum. Assuming
that some means of utilizing them to the full is found, it should
be possible to demonstrate structure and to obtain resolution that
is inconceivable by any method at present available.

I talked the matter over with Mr. Eheinberg at this time, and
he was so impressed with the possibilities in this direction that
I had the advantage of his collaboration in some preliminary
experiments which we agreed to attempt. Unfortunately, he
became engaged in other and more important work, and was
obliged — temporarily only, I hope — to relinquish his share in the
experiments.

It is at once only fair to say that so far as any practical result
goes we did not achieve very much. It was a question, at first,
of repeating the early experiments that had been made by the
observers mentioned, and by Bragg in this country. We were
able to get some reflected X-ray images from crystal surfaces
and from mica films, and by using curved mica films we suc-
ceeded in changing the form of a reflected beam of X-rays. The
problem to be solved at the present time is to find a method of
expanding or contracting a beam of X-rays in the manner that a
lens alters the form of the wave-front with ordinary light. If
means could be discovered to effect this, not on the face of it an
insurmountable obstacle, then X-rays have characteristics that
would make them by far the most valuable source of energy at
present known in microscopic work. If we consider the fact
that X-rays are selectively absorbed by so many substances, we
realize that even at present we are in a position to utilize them,
apart from the question of obtaining greater magnification and
resolution. That being the case, I was interested enough to make
some experiments to determine how far one might be able to go in
obtaining direct radiographs of microscopic objects, enlargements
being obtained by photographic means, and I venture to think the
results are not uninteresting.

It is perhaps advisable briefly to indicate the conditions under
which X-rays are produced. An X-ray tube, as ordinarily con-

b 2

4 Transactions of the Society.

structed, emits radiations of various wave-lengths. If the waves are
exceedingly short, the tube is referred to as a " hard " one, the rays
emitted being termed " hard " rays. On the other hand, if the tube
is not so highly exhausted, and emits rays of longer wave-length, the
tube is then referred to as " soft " and the rays emitted are called
" soft " X-rays. The difference between these two states so far as
penetration is concerned is very marked. Hard X-rays will pene-
trate nearly all substances even if their thickness is considerable,
but with soft X-rays penetration is not nearly so great ; and for all
small objects, which are in any sense microscopic, their use is
indicated. The tube I have used is provided with a lithium glass
window so that the soft X-rays are freely transmitted. Ordinary
glass obstructs the softest X-rays very seriously.

If it were possible to produce X-rays of any given wave-length,
in the same sense that we can obtain monochromatic light for
ordinary work, it would help us considerably. There is much
reason to think that this will be practicable before long. X-ray
tubes as ordinarily constructed emit rays of varying wave-length,
so that while you can get a " soft " tube emitting a preponderance
of soft rays, yet there is a certain admixture of hard rays with it.
.Another point that influences the particular quality of the rays
emitted, is the material of which the anti-cathode is made. As you
are probably aware, X-rays are generated in an exhausted tube as
the result of the impact of cathode rays on a metal surface, this
metal surface then becoming the source of X-rays. By varying
the material of which the anti-cathode is made, changes are pro-
duced in the character or wave-length of the X-rays emitted.

The method of producing the few radiographs I am showing you
this evening is very simple. An X-ray tube is enclosed in a
lead-covered box so that the rays cannot pass out except in the
desired direction. There is a small aperture in the position oc-
cupied by the lithium glass window in the tube, and this is covered
with a lead diaphragm which has a small central circular hole.
There are two or more of these diaphragms one above the other,
with a certain distance between, so that at a distance of 15-20 cm.
from the tube a parallel beam of X-rays of very small cross section
is transmitted. The object is then laid in a light-tight box in the
path of the beam, the rays passing through the object and imping-
ing on to a photographic plate which is placed in actual contact
with the object. The photograph then results as in ordinary X-ray
work.

The resulting enlargement is purely a photographic process. I
found very early that the results were limited, at least in part, by
the size of grain in the photographic plate ; and any ordinary X-ray
plates that 1 tried were not satisfactory from this point of view,
although good enough for ordinary X-ray work. In the course of
some ultra-violet light experiments which I had previously con-

X-rays in Relation to Microscopy. By J. E. Barnard. 5

ducted with the Kohler apparatus, Messrs. Wratten and Wain-
wriglit had supplied me with some very fine grain plates with
exceedingly thin films of gelatin. I tried these and found them
remarkably good, substantially better in fact than any X-ray plates
I had tried. The results I am showing are in most cases from
negatives on these plates.

The resulting radiographs are of course of the same size as the
microscopic object, and photographic enlargement has to be resorted
to to obtain whatever magnification is possible. As I have said,
the photographic plate is a limiting factor, and I am therefore
experimenting in a direction that Mr. Eheinberg has suggested,
that is to make a plate that is entirely grainless. There are
photographic processes in which a grainless image is produced,
and it is on these lines I propose to proceed.

It occurred to me that it might be possible to obtain a
fluorescent image and magnify that directly, and I therefore made
some experiments in thaf direction. The image was received
on a fluorescent screen and the visible image so obtained was
reflected at right angles to the direction of the beam of X-rays
by a right-angled prism, and this was picked up by a micro-
planar lens and so magnified. The result was not unpromising
except that up to the present I have not been able to obtain a
grainless fluorescent screen which gives a sufficiently brilliant
image. With certain minerals, such as Kunzite or Willemite,
I think it is possible that, given sufficient X-ray energy, one
might obtain photographs in this way.

The question of exposure in the method described is not an
easy one, as microscopic objects are usually thin, and the distance
through which obstruction takes place is short, therefore small
differences in exposure make very considerable differences in the
result. I think from experiments I have made that it would be
more satisfactory in dealing with different thicknesses of objects
and with different resistances of the objects to X-rays, if one could
vary, not the exposure but the softness of the rays, using, of
course, softer rays for objects that are very transparent, and harder
ones in the case of objects of greater opacity. This, however, is
a point that is not easy to deal with in practice, although there
is an X-ray tube on the market now which enables one to produce
X-rays of any given quality and almost any given quantity, the
two factors being controlled fairly exactly. Up to the present,
however, I have not heard of one being made in lithium glass
or with a lithium glass window.

The examples I am showing are almost entirely Foraminifera,
not that they are the only objects to which the method can be
applied, but because, owing to the kindness of Mr. Heron- Allen
and Mr. Earland, I had quite a wealth of this material at my
disposal for experimental purposes. There is, however, hardly

6 Transactions of t/ie Society.

any branch of microscopic work to which the method is not
capable of application.

The diagram, fig. 1, shows in section the apparatus used to

B

H
K

Fig. 1.

produce the illustrations herewith. A carries the photographic
plate and the object. The latter is placed at B directly underneath

X-rays in Relation to Microscopy. By J. E. Barnard. 7

the plate and in contact with its sensitive surface. This box
rotates on the centre C, the axis of which passes through the
plane of the object. D is a quadrant showing the degree of deflec-
tion from the vertical. The object therefore can be photographed
in any azimuth. A lead tube F is supported above the X-ray
tube K and is closed at each end by the lead diaphragms E and G.
The lithium glass window H is shown on the part of the X-ray
tube facing the object -box, and allows a broad beam of X-rays to
be emitted.

It is of interest to compare the wave-lengths of visible light
with ultra-violet light, Schumann waves (the extreme ultra-violet
not transmitted by air) and X-rays. It will be seen that the latter
are of the order of one-thousandth of the wave-length of Schumann
waves. There is therefore a wide gap to be bridged, but it is more
than probable that physical research will very soon result in the
production of radiations of this type, in fact much has already been
done in this direction. The possibility of utilizing some of these
intermediate radiations in Microscopy must always be borne in
mind.

The following are the approximate wave-lengths referred to : —

Hertzian waves . . . 1000000 to 0*4 cm.

Infra-red waves . . . - 13 mm. to 0'770 /x

Visible light rays. . . 0*770 /x to 0*360 /x

Ultra-violet rays . . . ' 360 /x to • 2 /x = 200 /x/x

Schumann waves . . . 0*1 /x = 100 /x/x

X-rays . . . .0*1 /x/x, about

I am convinced that the possibility of using X-rays or some
allied radiation as a source of energy for microscopic work is not
merely a possibility, but is a problem the solution of which is a
reasonable certainty. It may be a long time before a definite result
is secured ; on the other hand the progress of physical science is so
rapid that at any moment a development may occur which will
put the whole matter on a different plane. For my own part, I
feel so convinced of the certainty that results will be obtained that
I am determined to follow the matter up with such facilities,
limited though they be, as are at my disposal.

8

OBITUAKY.

August Weismann. 1834-1914

In our necessary preoccupation with the war, little attention is
being given to the passing of great men. The death of a scientific
Nestor holds the public interest less than the loss of a ferryman's
hut on the Yser ; and it cannot be otherwise. But the ideal of a
republic of science will, we trust, survive the present tragic conflict
of nations ; and in the light of that hope, as well as in gratitude,
we would pay respectful homage to Weismann's memory. Professor
and Geheimrath, recipient of the Darwin- Wallace medal and many
honorary degrees, he remains to us " Weismann " and one of the
makers of biological history. He was elected an Honorary Fellow
of this Society in 1879.

Of his life apart from his scientific work we know little. He
was born at Frankfurt-on-Main on January 17, 1834 ; he studied
medicine at Gottingen ; he went after graduation to Eostock,
Vienna, Italy, and Paris, and was for some time private physician
to Archduke Stephen of Austria. In 1863 the attraction of
zoology became imperative, and he went to study under Leuckart
at Giessen. Three years afterwards he went to Freiburg in
Breisgau as Professor Extraordinarius, and soon succeeded to the
chair which he held with so much distinction for about forty years.
For many years, owing to a severe eye-trouble, it was impossible
for him to do much microscopical work except at intervals. But
he never gave up the habit of hard thinking, and it is less than two
two years ago that he completed the arduous task of revising his
" Evolution Theory." True to the older tradition of German pro-
fessors, Weismann lived for his work and allowed nothing to dis-
tract him. He was fond of country walks and of music. (His son
has, we believe, made a name for himself as a composer.) While
he was a keen intellectual combatant, Weismann seemed to us,
when we had the privilege of knowing him a little, essentially a
man of peace, caring much more for truth than for any personal
success in controversy.

Weismann's early work was strictly zoological, and his
researches on the development of Diptera, the origin and move*
ment of the germ-cells in Hydromedusse, the eggs of Daphnids,
and the seasonal dimorphism of Lepidoptera, are well known. As
the years passed, he turned his attention more and more to the
deeper problems of biology ; and from 1883 onwards he published

Obituary. ' 9

a succession of essays on heredity and other problems, such as
length of life, the immortality of the Protozoa, death, the signifi-
cance of sexual reproduction. These excited great interest and
stimulated research and enquiry. His studies on the Hydrozoa led
him to the important idea of the continuity of the germ plasm,
which has passed into the body of biological doctrine as a general
explanation of the everyday fact that like tends to beget like.

From the idea of the continuity of the germ-plasm, Weismann
worked logically onwards towards two great results — on the one
hand, the elaboration of a hypothetical picture of the organization
of the physical basis of inheritance (expressed in his famous
" Germ Plasm ") ; and, on the other hand, the destructive criticism
of the evidence on which had rested the widespread belief in the
transmission of somatic modifications' (structural changes acquired
in the lifetime of an individual organism as the direct result of
peculiarities in environment and function). His idea of con-
stituents in the germ-plasm corresponding to every independently
variable and independently heritable character has been continued
into the more recent conceptions of germinal factors, determiners,
or genes corresponding to the unit characters of the Mendelians
and Mutationists. His scepticism as to the transmission of indi-
vidually acquired modifications has had a great influence and has
prompted some very important investigations and not a little
careful thinking. Perhaps the most characteristic expression of
Weismann's mind is the hypothesis of germinal selection, by which
he sought to account for detmiteness in variation, for it illustrates
his resolute power of following an idea to its logical consequences.
He adhered with the strongest conviction to the Darwinian view
of the importance of selection as a directive factor in evolution,
but he widened and deepened the doctrine with clearness and '
subtlety. Many biologists of to-day are far from accepting
' Weismannism." but we are all agreed in recognizing the stimu-
lating influence which he has exerted, and in admiring the nobility
and sincerity of his life and work.

J. A. T.

SUM)] A I! Y OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOftAMIA),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.
a. Embryology, f

Sex-determination in Pigs.} — 0. H. Parker refers to the hypothesis
of Seligson that in Mammals the right ovary gives rise to ova that
produce male offspring, the left to ova that produce female offspring.
If this were so, the pairs of embryo pigs in the part of the uterus next
the right ovary ought to be predominantly males and those next the
left predominantly females. This is not the case. Pairs of embryos
composed of two males or of two females occur in about the same pro-
portions next the right ovary and next the left. A very similar pro-
portion occurs at the division of the horns of the uterus. Although the
sex of the offspring is thus shown not to be correlated with the side of
the body from which the ovum that gave rise to the young came, it
might be supposed that in any female a given ovary would always pro-
duce offspring of the same sex. In that case we should expect to find
the great majority of pairs of young next the ovaries to be either both
males or both females. But there are almost as many pairs composed
of one male and one female next the ovaries as there are at the division
of the horns. It may be concluded that in the pig each ovary produces
ova which may give rise to either male or female offspring. For the
albino rat it has been shown by Doncaster and Marshall, and by King,
that a single ovary may give rise to ova which produce both sexes.

Litters and Nipples in Swine.§ — G. H. Parker and C. Bullard
found that 1000 litters of unborn pigs contained 5700 individuals ; the

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers
noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of
this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually pub-
lished, and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are
either new or have not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so-
called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and
allied subjects. J Science, xxxix. (1914) pp. 215-16.

§ Proo. Amer. Acad., xlix. (1913) pp. 399-426.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES. 11

mean number of pigs per litter being 5 * 97, the mode 6. Of the 5790 pigs,
3024 were males and 2946 were females'; 102* 6+ males to 100 females.
In the whole population the nipples ranged from 8 to IK, with a mean
of 12*2 + and a mode of 12. In the male pigs the nipples ranged from
9 to 18, Avith a mean of 12 -4 + and a mode of 12, and a standard devi-
ation of 0*6906+ 0*0060. In the female pigs the range was from
8 to 18, with a mean of 11 • 9 + , a mode of 12, and a standard deviation
of 0-7905± 0-0069.

On the left side the nipples ranged from 4 to 9, with a mean of
6 - 1 and a mode of 6 ; on the right side they ranged from 4 to 10, with
a mean of 6"1 — , and a mode of 6. The coefficient of correlation for
the two sides was 0-60631 0-0055. In the whole population the
arrangement of the nipples fell under the regular plan (one in which
the nipples are grouped in pairs right and left) in 3559 cases, and under
the irregular plan (one in which the members of the right and left series
show no obvious pairing) in 2411 cases.

There is no obvious relation between the size of the litter and the
number of nipples in the females. Though there may be as few nipples
as 8 and as large litters as 15, disadvantageous combinations of large
litters borne by females with a few nipples cannot be of frequent occur-
rence. Commonly, there are about twice as many nipples (12) as
young (6).

Experimental Parthenogenesis in Sea-urchins.* — M. Herlant
maintains (against Loeb, H indie, and Retzius) that the two poles of the
first mitosis in the parthenogenetic cleavage of the Echinoid ovum do
not result from the division of the female centrosome. The fact is that
the female centrosome, without dividing, forms one pole ; and the
other is a cytagter. The action of the hypertonic solution results in the
formation of a cytaster which secondarily enters into relations with the
monaster arising from the female pronucleus and its centrosome. A
perfect achromatin spindle is formed between them, and the chromosomes
form an equatorial plate. The opportune intervention of the cytaster
secures the transformation of the monaster, produced by activation, into
a bipolar mitosis. An abortive figure, incapable of leading to segment-
ation, is transformed into one which provokes segmentation and leads on
to the development of the egg.

Studies on Germ-cells. f — Robert W. Hegner has studied germ-cells
(of insects in particular) with reference to the Keimbahn determinants,
that is to say, visible substances which are present in the egg before
cleavage begins, and later become part of the material contained in
the primordial germ-cells. The following events may be recognized
in the history of the Keimbahn determinants : — Localization of the
Keimbahn determinants in the oocyte or mature egg ; association
of one or more cleavage nuclei with part or all of the Keimbahn

* Comptes Kendus, clix. (1914) pp. 408-10.

t Journ. Morphol., xxv. (1914) pp. 375-499 (74 figs.).

12 SUMMARY OF CUREENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

determinants to form one or more primordial germ-cells ; the appar-
ently equal distribution of the Keimbahn determinants between the
daughter germ-cells at each mitotic division {Sagitta possibly excepted) ;
the disappearance of the Keimbahn determinants in the oogonia and
spermatogonia; the reappearance of the Keimbahn determinants in
the oocyte or mature egg. The most interesting period in the germ-
cell cycle is that extending from the formation of the ultimate oogonia
and spermatogonia to the complete segregation of the germ-cells in the
developing egg. A little known and important part of this period is
that during which, in some animals, visible substances (Keimbahn
determinants) peculiar to the germ-cells appear, become localized in a
definite part of the egg or in certain blastomeres, and are equally dis-
tributed among the primordial germ-cells. The Keimbahn in animals
was first traced in dipterous insects. Keimbahn determinants appear
in the eggs of all Diptera that have been carefully studied (Miastor,
Chironomus, CaUipkora). In Miastor there are six cell-divisions during
the multiplications of the oogonia. The somatic cells lose part of their
chromatin by diminution processes, whereas the germ-cells possess a
complete amount of chromatin. The nurse-cells are of mesodermal
origin. A peculiar mass of cytoplasm becomes situated at the posterior
end of the oocyte ; within this one of the first eight cleavage nuclei
(with a complete amount of chromatin) becomes embedded ; it is then
cut Off from the rest of the egg as the primordial germ-cell. The
origin of this peculiar mass of cytoplasm could not be determined.
The eggs of the ovoviviparous Dipteron Compsilura, and of the willow-
cone gall-fly, Cecidomyia, contain Keimbahn determinants which have a
history like that of similar bodies in other insects. An early segrega-
tion of germ-cells has been reported for certain Chrysomelid beetles,
and Keimbahn determinants have been found in the eggs of those
carefully examined. An examination of all stages in the early cleavage
of Chrysomelid eggs failed to reveal a chromatin-diminution process
such as occurs in Ascaris and Miastor. The conclusion is reached that
the cleavage nuclei are all potentially alike, and that the cytoplasm
controls their differentiation into the nuclei of blastoderm cells, pri-
mordial germ-cells, and vitellophags. What appears to be amitotic
nuclear division among the vitellophags is described. The pole-disc
granules in Chrysomelid eggs form a recognizable mass just before the
oocyte reaches its full size ; their genesis could not be definitely de-
termined In the testis of Leptinotarsa the germ-cells in each cyst arise
from a single spermatogonium. Spindle- remains connect the daughter-
spermatogonia up to the time when sixty-four cells are present in each
cyst. This process is homologous with the differential divisions in
Dytiscus and other beetles, and certain Hymenoptera, during which an
ultimate oogonium and a definite number of nurse-cells arise from a
single oogonium. What appears to be amitotic nuclear division was
found among the nurse-cells of Leptinotarsa, but no nuclear phenomena
which could be interpreted as amitosis were observed among the oogonia
or spermatozoa. Most of the author's own experiments and observations
refer to Chrysomelid beetles, but he describes work done by other
investigators on the Keimbahn in Crustacea, in Ascaris, Sagitta, and

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY , ETC. 13

other forms. He concludes that, though the nature of the Keimbahn
determinants remains uncertain, their origin from metanucleoli, nurse-
cells, and possibly the nutritive stream, suggests that they may play a
role in the nutrition of the germ-cells during the period extending from
their segregation until the formation of the definitive germ-glands.
A very full bibliography is appended to the paper.

Development of Nerves of the Head in Fishes and Amphibian's.*
A. Goette has studied this subject in Petromyzon fluviatilis, Torpedo
ocellata, Amia calva, and Siredon pisciformis. He first discusses the
metamerism of the ecto-mesoderm of the head, and he then passes to
particular nerves. The olfactory of Selachians arises from several bud-
like outgrowths of the olfactory epithelium and their union into a
ganglionic body, which grows centripetally and unites with the brain.
In Amphibians, in spite of appearances, it also arises from the olfactory
epithelium.

The auditory of Fishes and Amphibians is not a branch of the facial
ganglion; it arises from a proliferation of the labyrinth-epithelium,
which forms an associated ganglion. The differentiation of nerve-
strands passing from the epithelium into the ganglion gives rise to the
formation of the several auditory branches. This is certainly so in
Torpedo, and probably so in Siredon. The union with the facial is
subsequent and secondary.

In the vagus complex of the lamprey there are three centrogenous
spinal nerves (glossopharyngeal, vagus, and first spinal nerve of the
trunk), an ectodermic lateral nerve primordium, and five ectomeso-
dermic visceral ganglia.

In the vagus complex of Torpedo there are united (1) a complete
spinal nerve with its own ganglion — the vagus ; (2) four ectomeso-
dermic visceral ganglia ; (3) an undivided and non-ganglionated occipital
ganglionic ridge, uniting the visceral ganglia and their nerves with the
spinal cord ; and (4) a lateral ganglion extending through the whole
vagus and occipital region.

The lateral nerve stem in Siredon does not develop independently of
other parts, secondarily sending out lateral twigs to the terminal organs.
It arises rather from the commissures which connect the lateral organs
and are evoked by them. The lateral twigs are wholly due to the
drawing back of the nerve stem from the lateral organs.

Goette cannot confirm in Fishes or Amphibians the centrogenous
origin of the nerves of the eye-muscles or their interpretation as motor
roots of the spinal nerves. The fact is that these nerves come into
secondary connexion with the brain. They arise as a rule from their
muscles or the adjacent mesenchyme, and in rare cases from other nerves.

These eye-muscle nerves arise from indifferent formative cells which
form a syncytium. The fibres arise first in the distal portions and grow
centripetally into the brain, where they unite with ganglion-cells. The
syncytial primordium forms the sheath as well as the fibres.

The ganglionic primordia of the lateralis, vagus, and visceral ganglia
are at first syncytial. From these syncytia there are differentiated first

* Arch. Mikr. Anat., 1> Abt., lxxxv. (1914) pp. 1-165 (10 pis. and 6 figs.).

14: SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEAECHES RELATING TO

the nerves, then the elements that form ganglion cells, and finally the
interstitial enveloping tissue.

The ganglion cells are secondary formations in the embryonic
ganglion-primordia, and their union with the nerve fibres which are
already in part formed is a secondary process. The nerve-fibres of the
lateral nerves develop independently of any neuroblasts within the
syncytial plasma of the primordium, and they enter subsequently into
connexion with the ganglion cells.

Tissue-formation is the visible expression of the organization
associated with a function. Nerve-formation is the visible expression
of the progressive localization and differentiation of the pre-existing
correlation between the sensory stimulus and the contraction. The
active cause of the histogenesis is the transmission of the stimulus.
There are no preformed nerve-formers, but the formative material of
the nerves is determined to its histogenesis and topographical alteration
by external influences. The causes of nerve-formation are (1) the
active transmission of stimulus which has a histogenetic capacity, and
(2) the morphological conditions affecting the course of the nerve.
These are some of the main conclusions of an elaborate investigation.

Eye-muscle Nerves.* — H. V. Neal begins an important study of
the morphology of the eye-muscle nerves with an account of the histo-
genesis of spinal somatic motor nerves in Squalus embryos. Nerve
and muscle are not primarily connected. Previous to the establishment
of protoplasmic connexion, the space normally found between somite
and neural tube is filled by a vacuolated non-staining, non -protoplasmic
liquid containing a relatively small amount of coagulable material.
Protoplasmic connexion of somite and tube is established by an
amoeboid protoplasmic extrusion from cells in the ventro-lateral wall of
the neural tube, forming the " protoplasmic bridges " of Paton or
" plasmoderms " of Held. The cell processes which form these con-
nexions extend gradually along the median surface of the somite between
myotome and sclerotome. "Within these processes the neurofibrils soon
make their appearance. This evidence demonstrates the neuroblastic
nature of the cells which form the protoplasmic connexions between
tube and somite, and their processes are therefore to be regarded
as neuraxons. The cell-chain hypothesis of neurogenesis receives no
support from the evidence presented in sections of Squalus embryos.
The neurofibrillar structure appears in the nerve primordia before any
cells are present in them.

The growth of a nerve-fibre toward its terminal organ does not
involve the use and resorption of primary plasmatic paths, but simply
the movement and differentiation of the protoplasm of the medullary
neuroblast. The most convincing demonstration of the truth of this is
afforded by the growth and extension of the processes of Rohon-Beard
cells. The numerous cells which, in somewhat advanced stages of histo-
genesis, make their appearance in the ventral nerve primordia, are not
of mesenchymatous but of medullary origin ; exclusively so in the

* Journ. Morphol., xxv. (1914) pp. 1-187 (9 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC 15

earlier stages of development. That mesenchymatous cells are added to
the growing nerve in more advanced stages to form the connective
tissue sheaths, seems probable.

The cells of the motor nerve primordia have no genetic relations to
the neurofibrils or nenraxons. In other words, they are not " nerve-
cells " in von Apathy's sense, nor do they unite in chains to form the
neuraxons or neurofibrils with their sheaths. Whether or not they
participate in the formation of the sympathetic is an open question.
The evidence on the whole favours, but does not prove, the conclusion
that most of the cells of the sympathetic have their source in the dorsal
ganglia. That the cells of the motor nerve primordia in Squalus for
the most part form neurilemma cells, can be convincingly demonstrated.
Thus the phenomena of spinal motor nerve histogenesis in Squalus
support the conclusions of Kupffer, Bidder, His, Harrison, and Lewis.

The author passes to the histogenesis of the oculomotor, trochlear,
and abducens nerves, and finds that it differs in no essential respect
from the histogenesis of spinal somatic motor nerves. This creates a
strong presumption that pre-otic and post-otic divisions of the Vertebrate
body are fundamentally alike. The evidence in favour of the view that
the oculomotor is a mixed nerve homologous with typical cranial nerves
such as the trigeminal is so unconvincing, while the evidence of its
histogenesis and its central and peripheral relations so strongly supports
the view that it is a somatic motor nerve, that the acceptance of the
latter view seems unavoidable. The trochlear and the abducens must
also be ranked along with somatic motor nerves.

In the region of the fore-brain there is at least one inetamere,
serially homologous with the metameres of the trunk, but more cannot
be safely said. The second inetamere has the premandibular as myo-
tome, the mid- brain as neuromere, the ophthalmicus profundus as the
somatic sensory nerve, and the ciliary as sympathetic ganglion. The
secondary splitting of the pre-mandibular myotome into dorsal and
ventral moieties is evidently correlated with the development of the
eyeball. The facts do not warrant the supposition that the oculomotor —
the somatic motor nerve of this metamere— has a bimeric distribution.
No one has been able to demonstrate the required two motor niduli.
The prernandibular is a single somite.

The third metamere has the mandibular for its myotome, and its
neuromere is the cerebellum, within which lies the nidulus of the trochlear
nerve, which is therefore the somatic motor nerve of the segment. The
trochlear nerve becomes connected with the ramus ophthalmicus super-
ficialis trigemini, the somatic sensory nerve of the metamere. There is
evidence of. a transient sympathetic primordium. While the chiasma of
the trochlear is an anomaly, it may be regarded as ccenogenetic, and its
existence does not invalidate the comparison of this metamere with a
trunk segment. The ramus mandibularis trigemini appears to be the
splanchnic motor element of this metamere.

The fourth metamere contains the third or hyoid myotome and the
fourth neuromere (second hind-brain neuromere). To this segment
may be assigned as the somatic sensory nerve the major root of the
trigeminal in part. Since no neural crest is proliferated from this

1<*> SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

neuromere, however, this assignment must lie made tentatively, although
the major root of the trigeminal is attached to this neuromere. The
neuroblasts in the somatic motor column of this neuromere do not pro-
duce a nerve. The transient nerve seen in this region in chick embryos
may be the somatic motor nerve of this metamere which lias disappeared
phylogenetically. The myotome of the metamere, however, is innervated
by the nerve of a post-otic metamere, the abducens.

The fifth and last pro-otic metamere includes the fifth neuromere
and the fourth somite which is partly sub-otic. To this position it
presumably owes the loss of its myotome. To the degeneration of the
myotome may be attributed the loss of the somatic motor nerve of this
metamere. No sympathetic primordium develops in this segment and
the somatic sensory components are also lost. But the proliferation of
the cells of the facialis nerve from this neuromere justifies the inference
that they once have been present in this nerve. The loss of the myotome
of this and of the following somite, a loss in all probability due to the
enlargement of nerve ganglia and sense organ in this region, tends to
show that the preservation of the myotomes of the first, second, and
third somites is due to their functional relation with the eye-ball. The
eye muscles are the last remnants of the lateral trunk musculature
anterior to the ear.

Regenerative Capacity of Lizards.* — G. Billiard reports on the
recovery of a green lizard after it had been mauled by a cat. The tail,
reduced to a stump, regrew six centimetres in the following year.
But a lost hind leg, bitten across the femur, was not regenerated. The
digits of another damaged limb simply formed a scar. Billiard con-
cludes that the limbs are never regenerated, and he makes the suggestion
that statements to the contrary are due to a confusion between newts
and lizards ! It may be noted that in AVeismann's well-known discussion
of regeneration it is stated that lizards do not regrow their legs.

Hermaphrodite Amphioxus.f — J. H. Orton reports that an herma-
phrodite specimen of Amphioxus lanceolatus was taken at Plymouth,
which closely resembled one taken by Goodrich at Naples. It had one
gonadial pouch filled with ova and the remaining pouches filled with
spermatozoa. The liver and intestine were abnormal, but no parasites
were identified in the tissues to account for the abnormalities. It is
improbable that there is any normal sex-change in Amphioxus. The
three hermaphrodite specimens which have now been recorded have been
very small. The hermaphroditism is probably comparable to that not
unknown in some fishes.

Orton notes that the spawning of Amphioxus has been observed in
June, and that larva? have been obtained from captive specimens. It is
suggested that the club-shaped gland may secrete a substance which
attaches the larva to objects, and that this function may be correlated
with the asymmetry shown in the early development.

* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxix. (1914) pp. 327-9 (1 fig.),
t Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 506-12.(5 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 17

b. Histolog-y.

Cultivation of Human Tumour Tissue in vitro.* — David Thomson
and J. G. Thomson have definitely succeeded in cultivating in vitro
portions of intracystic papilloma of the ovary (not truly malignant) and
of carcinomatous gland from the neck (secondary to carcinoma of the
floor of the mouth). In the first case, buds of new growing tissue
appeared on the third day, and the new cells differed markedly from the
original cells, being larger and with amoeboid processes. In the second
case, after 44 hours' incubation at 37* 5° C, long branching stroma
cells appeared growing out from the original tissue ; and the new cells
were again much larger than the original. It is interesting to note that
these human tumour tissues were cultivated in a medium composed
chiefly of fowl-blood plasma.

Melaniridosomes.f — E. Ballowitz continues his study of chromato-
phores, and describes a new type in the perch and the ruffe {Acerina
cernua). The new type is a melaniridosome, which consists of a melano-
phore and an iridosome, i.e. a compacted aggregate of iridocytes (guanin-
cells). The iridocytes are numerous and the processes of the typically
central melanophore stream out between them.

Theory of Action of Rays on Growing Cells.J — J. Joly compares
the events taking place in a photographic film with those which occur in
cells subjected to y- and 2>rays. The formation of the normal latent
image by moderate light-stimuli is parallel with the stimulation of growth
by feeble x- or y-radiation. The photographic reversal by greatly in-
creased illumination compares with the inhibition of growth by the
heavy doses of y-radiation now employed in the treatment of cancer.
If, in the life of the cell, ions are naturally always being formed, the
absence of a " restrainer " might lead to morbid ionization ; or, again,
the presence of a sensitizer. The. former would limit the ionizing
tendency either physically by its inert properties, or chemically. The
latter would accelerate it by removing the products of reaction as fast as
they are formed. It is interesting to note that excessive quantities of
radium are found in certain tumours. If the cancer cell be the seat of
excessive ionization, it may be possible to bring about reversal (as in the
radio-active treatment) or to devise some chemical treatment which
serves to discharge the ionized systems.

Structure of Skin in AnguidseJ— W. J. Schmidt has made a
detailed study of the integument in Anyuis fragilis, Ophisaurus apus,
and Gerrhonotus liocephalus. With especial reference to the first, he
treats of the surface-relief ; the melanophores and guanophores ; the
arrangement of melanophores in epidermoid, subepidermoid, and inferior
groups ; the change in coloration with age ; the detailed structure of the

* Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxxviii. (1914) pp. 90-1 (1 pi.).

+ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., c. (1914) pp. 1-35 (3 pis. and 8 figs.).

% Proc. Eoy. Soc. Series B, lxxxviii. (1914) pp. 262-6.

§ Zool. Jahrb., Abth'. Anat., xxxviii. (1914) pp. 1-102 6 pis. and 25 figs.)

Feb. 17th, 191-', c

18 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

epidermis; the bony plates of the dermis ; the developmenl of the bony
plates, which is wholly due to the median and inner layers of the dermis ;
and the integumentary sensory spots.

Nematocysts in various Groups.* — 0. H. .Martin publishes a note
on the occurrence of nematocysts and similar structures in the various
groups of the animal kingdom. He examines the evidence for the
occurrence of such structures in Protozoa, Sponges, Turbellaria, Nemer-
tinea. Mollusca, and Chordata. True nematocysts he regards as de-
veloped only in, and characteristic of Ccelenterates ; and he classifies
these, and structures in other animals which have been described as
nematocysts as follows: 1. Autocnidae : true nematocysts developed
singly in a true nematoblast within the tissue of its possessor (Ccelen-
terates. 2. Cleptocnidaa : Ccelenterate nematocysts which have been
ingested with* the food, and are found unexploded in the tissues of their
possessor (iEolids, Turbellaria, etc.). 3. Pseudocnidae : often confused
with true nematocysts, but not homologous. This group includes the
nematocysts of certain Nemertines from which a spiral thread can be
discharged ; those of Epistylis and Otoplana, in which the thread is not
preformed with the capsule, and those of Turbellaria in which no trace
of a thread has been discovered. 4. Polar capsules : strictly analogous
as regards development, structure and mechanism to true nematocysts,
but confined to a single group of the Sporozoa. The author points out
that if all these groups are regarded as homologous, their presence in
such isolated instances in various groups Would present great difficulties
to the evolutionist. If they are analogous and have been evolved afresh
in each case, they afford an amazing instance of what is apparently con-
vergent evolution. The problem of the nematocyst position — so that
when the thread is discharged it will pass out of the animal — is discussed
and possible explanations are suggested, e.g. that the nematocyst exercises
some stimulus on the cell which contains it, or, that the structure and
shape of a hydroid nematocyst will, mechanically, set it at a certain angle
under certain conditions of pressure, and that the resultant of these
forces leads to the nematocyst under the skin always pointing in the right
direction.

C General.

Plankton. f — J. Graham Kerr first discusses the adaptations of the
plankton. The macroplankton is illustrated by Medusae, pelagic
Annelids like Tomopteris, the Le/'tocejihalus-stage of eels. Among their
characteristic features may be noted the transparency (even haemoglobin
is suppressed in the Lpptocephaliis-st&ge), types of coloration which
harmonize with the environment, the frequency of photogenic organs,
the well-developed sense-organs, and the development of floats (like the
swim-Madder of' fishes). In the microplankton the problems of flotation
are different from what they are in the case of larger forms. The
natural rate of sinking of small bodies is very slow ; the viscosity of the

* Biol. Centralbl., xxxiv. (1914) pp. 248-76.
t Buteshire Nat. Hist. Soc, 1914, pp. 1-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 19

sea-water is of more importance. The specific gravity may be diminished
by accumulating water or gelatinous material. An increased effect may
be given to the viscosity of the water by the development of spiny or
feathery outgrowths. The economic importance of the plankton is
incalculably great. Thus each food-fish is dependent upon a food-chain ;
the organisms forming any link of the chain supporting those of the
next link and being themselves dependent upon the next link in the
other direction, while the chain ends in the physical conditions of the
sea-water. A serious diminution in the numbers of fish in a given
locality may be a fluctuation due to a weakening of a link in the food-
chain. Or it may be due to migration away from accustomed haunts in
company with shifting of the physical conditions suitable to one or
other link. A scientific knowledge of the plankton must form the
basis of practical action in such cases.

Changes in Breathing and Blood at High Altitudes.* — M. P.
Fitzgerald publishes a record of further investigations into the changes
in breathing and blood at high altitudes. Her present investigations
were made on persons acclimatized up to 3850 ft., and the results con-
firm those gained in the earlier study, which included persons acclimatized
from 5000 to 14,000 ft. The lowering of the C0 2 pressure is in direct pro-
portion to the diminution of the barometric pressure, and amounts to
about 4 - 2 mm., or 10*5 p.c. of the sea-level value for each 100 mm. of
diminution of barometric pressure. In women, as at sea-level, the
alveolar C0 2 pressure is about 3 mm. lower than in men. The per-
centage of ha?rnoglobin in the blood is increased at altitudes of 3850 ft.,
as at higher altitudes. For every 100 mm. fall of atmospheric pressure
the percentage of haemoglobin in the blood is increased by about 10 p.c.
of the normal value for men at sea-level. In women, as at sea-level,
the values are about 11 p.c. lower than for men, but greater irregularity
is observed. Graphic representations and tables of the results are given.

Facial Vibrissas of Mamm iis.t — R. I. Pocock finds that in all the
principal orders of terrestrial Mammals some, at all events, of the species
possess facial vibrissa? arranged upon a definite plan. In a great many
cases, within the limits of a certain order, the species which are defective
in the matter of vibrissa? are the higher derivative types, whereas those
in which all or most of them are present are the more generalized types.

Except perhaps the suboculars, vibrissa? are primitive Mammalian
features. They are disposed in five groups. — 1. The buccal, including
mystacials on the muzzle and upper lip, and the submentals on the chin
and lower lip. 2. The interramal, an unpaired tuft of bristles, often
symmetrically arranged, projecting from the interramal area behind the
mandibular symphysis. 3. The genal, consisting of one or two tufts,
or isolated bristles on the check. 4. The superciliary, forming a tuft
over the eye, generally over its anterior portion. 5. The subocular,
beneath the eye, mainly in large Herbivora. The superciliaries and
suboculars must not be confounded with the eyelashes. The vibrissa?

* Proc. Roy. Soc, lxxxviii. (1914) pp. 248-57 (2 figs.).
t Proc. Zool. Soc, 1914. pp. 8*9-912 (13 figs.).

C 2

20 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

probably date back to a very early post-Cynodont stage of a Mammalian
evolution, and their absence in Monotremcs is a derivative feature asso-
ciated with the transformation of the jaws.

The development or deficiency of vibrissas is doubtless correlated
with the mode of life. Pocock calls attention to some noteworthy
points. There is a deficiency or complete absence of vibrissas in all the
ant-eaters, like Echidna, Tamandua, and Mania, quite unrelated genera.
They are highly developed in thickness and length in piscivorous
aquatic or semi-aquatic genera like Ghironeetes, Potamogale, Lutra, and
( 'ynogale, and they are comparatively feeble or deficient in aquatic Her-
bivores, like the Sirenians, Hippopotamus and Hydrochcerus. The
Polar Bear is exceptional among predatory aquatic Carnivores for the
poor development of the vibrissas, but its ancestors had probably lost
them before they took to the water. In the Primates they dwindle
from lower to higher types, and this is probably correlated with the
gradual perfection in the use and sensitiveness of the hand. They are
highly developed in active aboreal species like squirrels, and reduced in
size and number in slow climbers like sloths (Bradypus), Pottos (Pero-
dicticus), and the tree-kangaroo {Dendrolagus ur sinus). They are
generally prevalent in the smaller burrowing, bush-frequenting, or forest
species among Eodents, Carnivores, and others. They are decadent in
larger forms like the Ungulates.

■*■&"

Organ of Jacohson and Palatine Cartilage.* — A. Arnback Christie-
Linde describes the structure of the organ of Jacobson in Sorex,
Crocidura, Tupaja, and other types. It is relatively complicated in Tupaja
and Gymnura, but it is possible that this may be due to a difference of
sex. It is probable that the Insectivora are descended from Vertebrates
in which the organ of Jacobson was of a more complicated structure
than is now T generally met with in Mammals (excepting Monotremes).
The same type of Jacobson's organ occurs in widely different groups.

The cartilago palatina lies between the palatine processes of the
premaxillas and maxillae. It is most probably homologous with the pro-
cessus palatinus of Gaupp in Echidna. It belongs to the primordial
cranium, and is originally a process from the floor of the cartilaginous
nasal capsule into the region of the secondary palate. It is present in
Lacertiha. It is rudimentary in Tupaja, Macroscelides, Sorex, Lepus,
Bats, Lemurs, and higher Mammals generally.

Rate of Growth in Marine Invertebrates.! — J. H. Orton publishes
a preliminary note on an investigation into the rate of growth of marine
Invertebrates which he began in 1911. The particular objects of his
research are : to establish the age of common marine Invertebrates ; to
determine the minimum age at which these forms begin to breed ; to
examine the rate of growth at different seasons of the year and under
different conditions ; and to investigate as far as possible the fecundity
of different forms. He finds that the rate of growth in many forms is
much more rapid than has been suspected. Thus many species of

* Morphol. Jahrb., xlviii. (1914) pp. 343-64 (14 figs.).
t Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 312-36.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 21

Coelenterata give off medusas when not more than a month old. The
commonest species of Tubularia — almost certainly Tubularia larynx —
was found to give off actinulae larvae at an age of six weeks, and in one
experiment this form had moderately developed gonophores in 26 days.
As these actinulre have been found to settle and grow into polyps within
a few days, it follows that this species may pass through its life-cycle
within six weeks, and probably under favourable conditions within four or
five. Plumularia and Clonothyra3a may complete their life-cycle in three
months, and in both cases probably in a period shorter than that by
some weeks if the conditions are favourable. Most of the Ccelenterate
species investigated appeared to have a maximum rate of growth in the
months of August and September. Sagartia viduata was found to attain
full size at a maximum age of sixteen months. Among Porifera, Sycon
coronatum and Grantia compressa were specially investigated. They
were found to be annuals, as has been generally believed. There are
two breeding-seasons, summer and late autumn, and there was evidence
that the same individuals may breed twice — once in late autumn and
again in the following summer, after which they die down. Growth
continues throughout the winter, and temperature appears to be the
main factor in reproduction. Among Polyzoa, Bugula flabellata was
found to grow to a good sized colony and give off larvge within eight
weeks. A raft moored at sea for six weeks was found to be covered
with a growth of the hydroid Obeha genicidata, on which adult Nudi-
branchs, chiefly Galvina picta, were feeding. Masses of spawn of G. picta
were found on the hydroids, and from these masses free-swimming
veligers were given off. Thus, these ISTudibranchs had undoubtedly
peopled the raft as veligers, rushed through their development at
the expense of the hydroids, and were giving off veligers again to
populate hydroids elsewhere within a period of not less than six weeks
and two days. Many other interesting examples of rate of growth and
age of reproduction are given, but fuller accounts and more precise
figures are reserved for a later paper. Meantime the investigator asks
his readers for references to work on the same subject which they may
know of.

Tunicata.

Colouring Matters of Diazona violacea.* — Alfred Holt refers to the
fact that specimens of this rare compound Ascidian collected off the Outer
Hebrides by Prof. Herdman have a green tint when alive, but change
into violet when placed in alcohol, and give the alcohol a green colour.
Natural violet specimens occasionally occur. The green colour probably
results from some chlorophyll-like body. So far as is known, it is not
due to chlorophyll in symbiotic Algas. The pigment cells are far
smaller than the algal cells in known cases of symbiosis. Moreover,
the Ascidian has been collected from 60 fathoms.

The purple pigment is all but insoluble. Its behaviour resembles
that of the dibromindigo from Murex, and it is perhaps an isomer. It
also resembles that in Purpura and BonelUa. The experimental evidence

* Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxxviii. (1914) pp. 227-36.

22 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

so far available does not enable one bo ascribe any certain origin to the
violet pigment, nor to account for its development in such different
organisms as Murex, Par punt. Bonellia, and Diazona.

Tunicates of Santander.* — E. Rodriguez y Lopez Neyra de Gorgot
gives a short account of Tunicates collected at the Murine Biological
Station of Santander. The collection includes four species of Sulpa.
two of Molgula, four of Ascidia, two of L&ptoclinum, and so on. A
diagnostic key is given, and some illustrations of the branchial apparatus
of Ascidians and of the spicules of some compound forms.

Circulation and Luminescence in Pyrosoma.t — Fritz Burghause
describes the heart and circulation in the ascidiozooid of Pyrosoma
giganteum, and refers more briefly to the cyathozooid. He deals with
the various blood-sinuses ; the course of the circulation, as compared with
that of Ascidians and Salps ; the importance of tbe food-carrying function ;
the periodic reversal of the heart ; the influence on the heart's activity
of stimuli affecting the surface of the body ; the influence of lack of
oxygen ; the influence of products of metabolism : the influence of altera-
tions of temperature ; the changes that occur during the moribund
period. The luminescence is not due to the direct oxidation of a
luminous substance ; it has its seat in the luminous organs, the ovary,
and the embryo in the cloaca ; the colour observed was always greenish-
blue ; the luminescence of other animals serves to exite that of Pyrosoma ;
direct sunlight is prejudicial. Experiments showed that the luminescence
had no protective value as far as fishes and crabs were concerned.

INVERTEBRATA.
Mollusca.
7- Gasteropoda.

Apparent Absence of Sexual Characters in Shell of Neritina
fluviatilis.} — A. E. Boycott and J. W. Jackson have examined nearly
300 shells of this fresh-water Gasteropod to see whether the sexes
differed in size, shape, texture, colour, or other external features. They
were not able to find any sexual characteristic. The examination of
about forty radulas showed no sexual difference.

5. Iiamellibranchiata.

Luminous Organs and Nervous System of Pholas dactylus.§
J. Forster describes five luminous organs in this bivalve — two narrow
parallel stripes on the septum in the branchial siphon, two irregular
spots in the mantle, and a horseshoe-shaped organ on the posterior

* Mem. R. Soc. Espaiiola Hist. Nat., ix. (1914) pp. 489-512 (10 figs.).

+ Zeitschr. wiss. ZooL, cviii. (1914) pp. 430-97 (2 pis., 5 figs., and 9 tables).

J Ann. Nat. Hist., xiv. (1914) pp. 369-75 (2 figs.).

§ Zeitschr. wiss. ZooL, cix. (1914) pp. 349-92 (1 pi. and 15 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 23

portion of the pedal aperture. All arc situated on the internal mantle
surface. Each is composed of a large number of individual glands em-
bedded in loose connective-tissue, and emptying their contents into the
mantle cavity by narrow efferent ducts. According to the nature of
the secretion, mucin-glands and luminous glands may be distinguished.
The mucin-glands produce a homogeneous mucus ; the others a fluid
secretion and a granular material. The cells are not used up in forming
the secretion, but what is exuded is replaced during a resting period
succeeding the emptying. The luminous secretion arises by a granular
transformation of the homogeneous content of the cavities of a coarse
meshwork. The innervation muscles and vascular supply of the
luminous organs are carefully described.

The secretion expressed by the muscles is luminous when it touches
the water. It is extracellular as in Copepods and Ostracods. The
luminescence is not continuous ; it stops after continued stimulation,
and does not reappear until after a rest. It follows that the elaboration
of the luminescent material does not keep pace with the disassimilation.

The luminescent material is made by living cells, but it is not living,
nor does it require a protoplasmic environment. It may be seen after
decomposition has set in. In normal circumstances the luminescent
material comes out in clouds from the opening of the siphon. With
low-power magnification it appears as if the animal were surrounded by
thousands of small stars. These consist of luminous granules within a
sheath of mucin, which isolates the essential material.

Each luminous organ consists of three parts, the epithelium, a zone
where the luminous secretion undergoes transformation, and the glan-
dular tissue. Forster also gives a detailed account of the nervous
system.

Arthropoda.
"■■ Insecta.

Stylopization.* — Geoffrey Smith and A. H. Hamm have studied
the stylopization of a solitary bee, Andrena nii/rosenea, by Stylops melittse,
the adult female of which is a degenerate grub-like creature which
remains permanently inside the body of the bee. The male, before
hatching out as a winged insect, also develops inside the abdomen of
the bee, undergoing its larval stages and pupation in this situation.
The male pupa, in fact, closely resembles the adult female parasite, and
protudes a little cap between the segments of the bee's abdomen to the
exterior, which closely resembles the head of the female parasite which
is similarly protruded. When the adult winged male emerges from its
pupa and from the bee, it pushes off the protruded cap of the pupa and
leaves the old empty pupal case inside the abdomen of the bee, where
it can often be seen as a cavity opening to the exterior.

From^a study of the structure and life-history of Stylops, it appears
that, despite the existence of active winged males, fertilization cannot
occur, and development is always parthenogenetic. The parasite obtains
its oxygen from the outside air by means of tracheal openings on the

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., lx. (1914) pp. 435-61 (4 pla.).

24 SUMMARY OF CUKKKNT 1,'KSKA KCII KS RELATING TO

cephalothorax, and it does not possess any special absorptive organs for
taking up a special kind of food from the host. Nutrition seems to
take place by simple filtration from the host's blood through the very
thin skin of the parasite.

The effect of the parasite on the internal genital organs is slight, as
compared with the effect of Sacculina on Inachus, and leads to a
reduction in the size of the ovaries to about a quarter the normal size,
while the testes are usually unaffected. The ovaries of stylopized bees
never produce ripe ova, but the testes generally produce normal ripe
spermatozoa. The effect on the secondary sexual characters is again
slight as compared with that of Sacculina on Inachus. The external
gonapophyses are usually unaltered, or they may be slightly reduced in
size ; the antennae are unaltered. The scopa of the parasitized female
is generally reduced in size, and she never or very rarely collects any
pollen. The punctuation on the abdomen of the male maybe increased.

The most striking effect occurs in certain species (e.g. Andrena
labialis and A. chrysosceles) in which the male normally has a yellow
clypeus and the female a black one. Stylopization in those cases may
lead to the female assuming a yellow clypeus as in the male, while the
male may lose the yellow and acquire a partially black clypeus. This
acquisition of the yellow clypeus by the female is the only change
which can undoubtedly be interpreted as a positive acquisition of a
secondary sexual character proper to the opposite sex. This effect may
be brought about by male or female Stylops indifferently, the sex of the
parasite having nothing to do with the nature of the effect exerted.

The effects of stylopization may be ascribed to a merely quantitative
abstraction of nutriment from the gonad, leading to its partial atrophy,
and not to a qualitative alteration of the metabolism such as is brought
about by Sacculina. This also applies to the assumption of the yellow
clypeus by stylopized females, or the analogy of the assumption of male
plumage by many female birds as the result of simple ovariotomy or
ovarian atrophy.

Chromosome Complex of Culex pipiens.* — Monica Taylor finds
that the somatic number of chromosomes in the gnat is three, in both
sexes. The number of chromosomes in the spermatogonia as well as in
the primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatids is three.
The spermatogonial cells are not characterized by a synizesis stage. A
synizesis stage marks off the spermatogonial from the first spermatocyte
stage. The nuclear membrane persists throughout mitosis. The
synizesis stage represents an inactive phase of the nucleus in spermato-
genesis. A synizesis stage occurs in somatic nuclei.

Narcissus Flies. f— Of the various animal pests attacking the bulbs
of Narcissus and related plants none are more injurious than the flies —
Merodon equestris and Eumerus strigatus, known as the large and the
small Narcissus fly. The first is like a hive-bee or drone-fly (Eristalis).
The eggs are laid near the base of the leaves or on the necks of the bulbs ;

* Quart. Joum. Micr. Sci., lx. (1914) pp. 377-98 (2 pis. arid 3 figs.),
t Board of Agriculture Leaflet No. 286 (1914) pp. 1-6 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 25

the larvae feed inside the bulb and may migrate from one to another.
The second pest is a small black insect which is supposed to lay its eggs
near the base of the leaves. The larvaj burrow into the bulb and de-
stroy the whole interior. But the life-history has not been completely
traced.

Bristles of G-reenbottle Fly.* — Phineas W. Whiting has made a
study of variation and heredity in regard to the number of bristles in
Lucilia sericata Meig. He deals with a dozen dorsal bristles — posterior
dorsocentrals and acrostichals. He reaches two general conclusions :
(1) that reduction in bristles teuds -to affect the males more than the
females, while additional bristles are found more often in the females ;
and (2) that distribution as well as number of bristles is hereditary. Of
the 5367 flies bred, 2708 are males and 2659 are females, giving practical
equality. Reduction in the males is 74<s*5 bristles, while inithe females
it is only 455 ' 5 bristles. Reduction rarely goes beyond the loss of two
bristles in a single fly. There are 210 bristles added in the males, while
there are 343 added in the females. Thus addition affects the females
more than the males. No distinction is made between bristles of large
and bristles of small size.

Larva and Pupa of Frit-fly.f — T. R. Hewitt fills a gap in giving
a description of these stages in Oscinis frit, one of the worst cereal pests
in Europe. The maggot is about 3 mm. in length and 0'3 mm. in
thickness. It has eleven segments. The head bears two one-jointed
papilla? or feelers, two slight thickenings with spines probably sensory,
and hook-like spines dorsally. The mouth shows mouth-hooks or
" mandibles," and there is a cephalo-pharyngeal skeleton with several
paired sclerites in the mouth and gullet. At the posterior margin of the
foremost body segment are situated the anterior spiracles with a fine
sieve-like opening. The large tail-segment bears posteriorly the hind
pah' of spiracles on prominent backward-projecting spiracles. The
spiracular opening is bounded by a thick chitinous ring. The adjacent
cuticle has four very peculiar sets of radiating thickened ridges, situated
between openings of the spiracular branches, and they probably serve as
a protection to the spiracles, admitting air and excluding foreign material
when the spiracles are retracted. The anus is at the end of the minute
anal segment, which projects ventrally from the spiracular segment.
There is a semicircular anal pro-leg at each side of the median slit. The
puparium is red- brown, about 2 '5 mm. in length and 1 mm. in breadth.
The posterior spiracles are prominent, and the larval mouth-hooks can
be seen. The outline of the developing fly, with the contour of the
body, and the beginnings of the wings and legs, can be seen in the
cleared specimen.

Gametogenesis in Hybrid Moths.} — J. W. H. Harrison and L.
Doncaster have studied hybrid Bistoninre and their gametogenesis.

* Arner. Nat., xlviii. (1914) pp. 339-55.

t Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc, xiv. (3914) pp. 313-16 (1 pi.).

% Journ. Genetics, iii. (1914) pp. 229-48 (2 pis.).

26 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RE8E \ RCB i;s RELATING

Harrison »ives a general account of the hybrids he has produced, soine

with pure species as parents (primary hybrids), and some with either of
i lie two parents a primary hybrid (secondary hybrids). Thus Lycia
hirtaria $ x Pcecilnpsis [inuionaria 9 gives a primary hybrid, L. hybr.
pilzii ; while Pcecilopsia pomonaria £ x L. hybr. pilzii 9 gives a.
secondary hybrid /'. hybr. brooJcsi. One tertiary hybrid has been
obtained.

Harrison calls attention to a number of interesting points, such as
the great constitutional strength of the larvae and the growing sterility
of the primary hybrids as the specific divergence between the parents
increases. The "strength" behaves as a Mendelian dominant, and,
granting the possibility of aberrations (mutations) possessing great con-
stitutional strength, these two factors alone would result, in some cases,
in what could only be classed as new species.

Characters derived from the undoubtedly weaker Ithysise may be
dominant, which may be due to the primitiveness of the genus. The
male parent has almost always the superior influence in the hybridization.
No reasonable explanation of this fact has ever been suggested. Four
of the hybrids exist only in the male sex under normal conditions ; five
of the hybrids have the two sexes in approximately equal numbers ; three
of the hybrids have a large excess of females. The only form reared
from a hybrid female (Lycia hybr. pilzii), namely P&cilopsis hybr.
brooksi, was represented by specimens which were hopelessly gynandro-
morphic, wings, body, genitalia, antennas being built up of parts chosen
at random, as it were, from both sexes of the parents and grand-parents
It is worthy of note that the larger and more robust the specimen,
the more the male characters predominate, and vice versa. The hybrids
have a tendency to emerge long before the parent species. The hybrid
females, when produced, vary greatly in their wing development.

Doncaster draws some general conclusions from his observations on
the gametogenesis. There are 28 somatic chromosomes in Lycia hirtaria,
giving 13 in the spermatocytes, one of the thirteen being a large one
united to a small one. In lthysia zonaria there are 112 somatic and 56
spermatocyte chromosomes, which are much smaller than most of those
of Lycia hirtaria. The spermatogonial number of the hybrids, which-
ever way the cross is made, is as nearly as can be counted 70, of which
fourteen are conspicuously larger. Of these fourteen, twelve are derived
from the L. hirtaria parent and the other two from the lthysia zonaria
parent. The early synapsis stage of the spireme in the young spermato-
cytes and oocytes of the hybrids does not differ greatly from that of the
pure species, but it is apparently not followed by a normal pachytene
(" bouquet ") sta°'e with thick coiled thread. Comparatively few of the
chromosomes are paired in the spermatocyte divisions, so that these have
only from 5 to 15 fewer than the somatic number.

Noteworthy is the difference in the chromosome number in nearly
related species. Since there are exactly four times as many chromosomes
in /. zonaria as in Lycia hirtaria, and since the lthysia zonaria chromo-
somes are so much smaller that the total amount of chromatin, as
judged by the size of the resting nuclei, is approximately equal in the
two species, it seems a fair inference to suppose that the Lycia hirtaria

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 27

chromosomes may be regarded as compound, made up of units corre-
sponding with the separate chromosomes of Tthysia zonaria.

Another aspect of the individuality question is touched by the
phenomena of the maturation divisions of the hybrids. Although the
majority of the chromosomes fail to pair in synapsis, it is certain that some
of them do so. Perhaps the chromosomes are not individuals in the sense
of being indivisible units, but are composed of units, and perhaps the pair-
ing in synapsis is due to some affinity between chromosomes made up of
similar components. If there is any truth in this view, it may give some clue
to the baffling problem of interspecific sterility. The hirtaria-zonaria
hybrids are completely sterile. If the haploid set of 56 chromosomes of
zonaria consists on the whole of the same units as the 14 haploid chromo-
somes of hirtaria, combined in different ways, the sterility between the two
nearly allied species may have arisen simply from a difference of group-
ing. Since the units are grouped differently, the chromosomes cannot
pair properly in synapsis, and this may be the cause of the sterility.
Doncaster also discusses the possible cause of the fact that only males
are produced from the cross zonaria 9 and hirtaria £ .

Variability of Tiger Moth.* — Kurt Smollian has made a careful study
of the variability of Arctia caja, the garden tiger-moth. There is almost
no variability in shape. Changes in the shape of the wings are associated
with changes in venation, and these are almost exclusively pathological.
The males are on an average smaller than the females, and their range
of variation in size is less. The greater the inhibition in development,
the smaller the imago. Inhibitions of growth are due to. extremes in
the conditions of life, e.g. too high or too low temperature, too much
or two little humidity, insufficient or unsuitable food, and insufficient
light. Influences which increase the vital activity of the larval and
pupal stages increase the size of the imago.

As to colorations and markings, variants induced by frost and
great heat are individual aberrations. Those induced by low tempera-
ture but not frost, are mostly reversionary, especially as regards the
posterior wings. Those induced by warmth, but not great heat, corre-
spond to local southern races. Frost and great heat induce discontinuous
variations ; less extreme temperatures induce fluctuations. Modifications
of the caterpillar do not as such pass on to the imago. The females
are more susceptible than the males. There is evidence of a supero-
inferior direction of development in the fore-wings, of an infero-superior
direction in the hind-wings, and of an antero-posterior development in
both. Each character varies per se in its own direction. There is a
well-marked correlation between the coloration of the thorax and that
of the anterior wings, between that of the abdomen and that of the
posterior wings. The coloration of the imago is ontogenetically quite
independent of that of the larva.

The scales of the posterior wings are broader and have sharper
processes than those on the anterior wings, and have more hairlike
structures on the root area. These characters are ontogenetically (and

* Jen. Zeitschr. Naturw., 1. (1913) pp. 411-600 (6 pis. and 64 figs).

28 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

probably phylogenetically) younger. The scales of the anterior and
posterior wings show an antero-posterior development. The scales on
the thorax and anterior wings hint at a supero-inferior direction of
development ; the reverse is seen in the abdomen and posterior wings.
The females are more variable than the males, with larger scales, more
densely granulated, with more ridges. By frost and great heat an
inhibition is brought about, the internal pressure is lessened, and the
scales are smaller. Cold without frost is followed by smaller and
narrower scales, and the differentiation between basal scales and covering
scales disappears. This is a return to a more primitive condition.
Warmth without great heat is followed by larger scales in consequence
of increased metabolism and haemolymph pressure. Conclusions that
apply to characters of wings and body apply also to the scales thereof.

The male and female copulatory organs are fundamentally identical,
but specialized in different directions. They hardly vary in Arctia caja
or in species which are not split up into geographical races. The only
variability is in the bristles and spines, and this does not affect copula-
tion. The invariability of the copulatory apparatus helps to fix specific
characters.

The number of pinnae on the antennae is variable. On an average
there are 68 for the male, 64 for the female. Increased temperature
reduces the number of joints, decreased temperature thickens and streng-
thens them. The distribution and number of sensilla? differ in the two
sexes. Great heat and probably frost may inhibit the full development
of the sense organs. Moderately decreased temperature induces coarser
more massive forms (perhaps more primitive). Moderate warmth
favours increase in the number of sensory structures. Frost and great
heat are unfavourable to the formation of chitin, but moderate raising
and lowering of the temperature are favourable.

There are correlations between size and sex, between the coloration
of the thorax and that of the anterior wings, between the coloration of
abdomen and that of the posterior wings, and between the venation and
the marking, but no other correlations could be established.

In the pupa of one day all the parts except the wings show their
general structure. The development of hairs, setae, spines, and the like
is very slow till about the nineteenth day. The first dress of the Arctia
caja as regards wing-form, coloration, setse, scales, etc., is also phylo-
genetically the most primitive. The posterior wings show this most
clearly.

The range of colour variation in Arctia caja is enormous, some
tending to be lighter, some to be darker. The males tend to one pole,
the females to the other. The species is " hyper-sensitive " to influences
during the pro-imaginal period. Selection works only on the general
aspect, the anterior wings being protective and the posterior wings
repellent. There is no evidence of orthogenesis in Eimer's sense.

Mimicry in Genus Limenitis.* — James Francis Abbott discusses
the well known mimicry between Limenitis archippus (a butterfly
universally distributed in America) and Anosia (Danaida) plexippus,

* Washington Univ. Studies, i. (1914) pp. 203-21 (1 pi. and 2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 29

its model. Poulton lias pointed out the colour-markings common to
non-mimicking and mimicking species of the genus Limenitis, and has
indicated the changes by which the latter may have been derived from
the former by selection. Abbott has tested this view, and decides against
it. The colour markings of Limenitis arthemis, from which L. archippus
is supposed to have been derived, display a marked degree of variability,
those markings involved in the Poulton hypothesis much less so, how-
ever, than the blues and other colours not considered in that theory.
According to that theory the influence of selection should be manifest
in marked emphasis (or percentage of occurrence) on those markings
that incline towards the type of Anosia, the model. This Abbott finds
not to be the case. The curves for all the characters involved are
exceptionally symmetrical, and the skewness is so insignificant that
the curves may be treated as normal, indicating that in the individuals
studied, no selection with reference to the mimetic colours has taken
place.

Life-history of Agriades thersites. — T. A. Chapman * gives an
account of the eggs, larvse, and pupse of this butterfly. He gives
fine photograghs showing the minute structure of the skin at various
parts and in various stages, the hairs, the honey-gland region, the
cremastral area of the pupa, and the "pockets" of the pupa. In an-
other paper f he describes a new form of seasonal dimorphism in the
same species.

Genital Armature in Lepidoptera.J — G-. T. Bethune-Baker brings
forward evidence to show that the male genital armature affords valuable
guidance in taxonomy and phylogeny. Its characters are reliable in the
discrimination of genera as well as of species. Instances are given from
the Lycamidas in particular, but also from the Nyrnphalidse and other
families.

Heredity of Melanism in Lepidoptera.§ — W. Bowater concludes
that the weight of evidence up to the present seems to show that
melanism in Lepidoptera frequently follows the Mendelian law of
heredity, and in most cases is dominant, but in some few species is
recessive.

Sense-organs of Dytiscus Wings. || — Richard Lehr describes the
various groups of cupola-like sense-organs at the base of the anterior
wings and the chordotonal organ in the subcostal vein, giving a
detailed account of the minute structure. Besides the sensory organs
at the base there are sensory setse on other parts, especially near the
anterior margin, which are tactile in function. Passing to the elytra,
Lehr describes its cupola-like organs, hollow cones, and sensory seta',
distinguishing three kinds of the latter. All the sensory structures on

* Trans. Entomol. Soc, 1914, pp. 285-308 (28 pis.).

t Trans. Entomol. Soc. 1914, pp. 309-13 (1 pi.).

X Trans. Entomol. Soc, 1914, pt. 2, pp. 314-37 (11 pis.).

§ Journ. Genetics, iii. (1914) pp. 299-315 (1 pi.).

|| Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., ex. (1914) pp. 87-150 (45 figs.).

30 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the elytra pertain to the mechanical sense. A scheme is given showing
the distribution of the various structures on the alas and elytra, and the
minute structure is copiously illustrated.

Mechanism of Flight in Lamellicorns.* — Fr. Stellwaag has made
a very careful study of the detailed adaptations of the meso- and meta-

thorax, the elytra and the wings in relation to flight. He discusses, for
instance, the way in which the elytra are moved into their position
during flight and " locked " (serving for steadying), and how in their
resting position they are adapted to give the wings the most effective
protection.

Scent-organs in Caddis-flies. f — Bruce F. Cummings calls attention
to the enormous development of the palpi of the first pair of maxillae in
the male of Sericostoma personatum, a tolerably common caddis-fly in
Britain. Unlike the maxillary palpi of the female, which are five-jointed
and quite normal, those of the male consist of but a single segment
very much enlarged and shaped like a half -moon. These two palpi are
placed together and held vertically so as to mask the front of the head.
They have received various interpretations, but appear to be definitely
odoriferous.

Scent-organs secreting an attractive odour and confined to the male
are known in various Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Blattidae, and the
case of Sericostoma personatum should be added to the list. Scent-
organs are usually on the abdomen or on the thoracic appendages ;
their position on the palpi of Sericostoma is unique save for the case of
an Indian butterfly, Bertula chalybialis, where well-developed and
characteristic scent-organs occur on the labial palpi.

The author describes the detailed structure of the mouth-parts in
Sericostoma personatum, with particular reference to the maxillary palpi.
He gives a histological account of the scent-organ, which consists of
two sacs and a septum between them, glandular epithelium and scent-
hairs rooted in it.

Tertiary Thysanopteron.J — R. S. Bagnall describes Stenurothrips
succineus g. et sp. n. from Baltic amber. It shows affinities with the
neotropical genus Heterothrips, and is referred to the family Hetero-
thripidas. A very remarkable feature is that the tenth abdominal
segment is abnormally produced, and is open ventrally for its entire
length. It is longer than the head and prothorax taken together.
Bagnall has observed a similar tube-like extension in several forms,
notably in Panchsetothrips.

Gastric Cseca of Heteroptera.§ — H. Glasgow discusses the caeca at
the end of the mid-gut in numerous bugs. The caeca contain masses of
bacteria of various kinds, " morphologically characteristic for the

* Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., cviii. (1914) pp. 359-429 (5 pis. and 15 figs.),
t Proc. Zool. Soc, 1914, pp. 459-74 (8 figs.).
% Geol. Mag., No. 605 (1914) pp. 483-5 (1 pi.).

§ Biol. Bull., xxvi. (1914) pp. 101-70. See Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxxiii.
(1914) pp. 144-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 31

particular species harbouring them." It looks ;is if the caeca] bacteria
were antagonistic to intruding bacteria. The caeca differ greatly in
different types ; they show a gradation from simple to complex forms;
they may be indices of relationship.

Suction in Potato Capsid Bug.* — P. R. Awati has made a thorough
study of the mechanism of suction in Lygus pabuhnus. He deals with
the mouth-parts and their homologies, the structure of the head, the
tentorium, the muscles of the head, the pharynx, gustatory organs, and
pumping apparatus which forces the salivary secretion forward into the
efferent salivary duct and thence into the ejection-canal of the maxillary
stylets. In sucking, the first step is to apply the proboscis to a suitable
part of the leaf. The stylets are then driven forwards, being pushed
down by the bending of the proboscis. When the stylets reach particular
tissues, the maxillo -mandibular muscles begin to act, and the mandibles
get fixed into the cellular walls by means of their recurved hooks.
Saliva is injected into the wound and probably affects the sap. There is
capillarity in the suction-canal and this is helped by the turgidity of the
cells. In the pharynx there are two complementary factors which force
the sap onwards towards the oesophagus : (1) a vacuum is produced by
the raising of the operculum, and (2) the elasticity of the operculum
enables it to regain its normal position. A peristalsis is produced in the
oesophagus by means of constrictors, and a valvular action prevents the
sap from flowing back into the oesophagus from the stomach.

Injurious Insects in Ireland.f — G. H. Carpenter deals with the
frit-fly, larvas of a species of black-fly (Bibio) eating into potato-tubers,
the migratory Apple aphid (Aphis fitchii), the Furze mealy-bug (Pseudo-
coccus aceris) from apple shoots, various spring-tails (Achorutes armatus
and Lipura armata), the fern scale-insect (Chionaspis aspidistrse) from
filmy ferns, and many other forms. He reports the interesting occur-
rence of the ox warble-maggot (Hypoderma bovis) from the back of a
horse.

Braconid Parasite of Pine-weevil. J— J. W. Munro has found
parasitic larvae attacking the larvae of Hylobius abietis, and has identified
them with Bracon hylobii Ratzeburg. They may be of value in com-
bating the attacks of the pine-weevil, which are becoming more and
more common in Britain. It is a hardy parasite, apparently without
hyperparasites, and it attacks the weevil larva in its resting stage.

Life-history of Belladonna Leaf-miner.§ — A. E. Cameron describes
the various stages of Pegomyia hyoscyami — egg, larva, and pupuium,
and deals also with the copulation, oviposition, and the embryonic
period. Special attention is paid to the buccal-pharyngeal apparatus
and to practical questions. The maggot devours the parenchyma of

* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1914, pp. 685-733 (29 figs.).

t Econ. Proc. R. Dublin Soc, ii. (1914) pp. 142-60 (1 pi. and 8 figs.).

t Ann. Applied Biol., i. (1914) pp. 170-6 (4 figs.).

§ Ann. Applied Biol., i. (1914) pp. 43-76 (2 pis.).

32 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the loaves of belladonna, mangolds, beet, and henbane. It causes a
blistered appearance on the leaves and they soon wither. Hibernation
occurs in the pupal condition about two inches below the surface of the
soil. The eggs are laid superficially on the back of the leaf in groups
of parallel rows. The incubation period is about live days. The larvae
feed uninterruptedly and complete their metamorphosis in about 10 days.
The average period for a complete life-cycle is about ?»G days. There
may be three broods in the season. Two closely related species, P.
bicolor and P. nigritarsis attack common weeds like the dock, and their
life-histories resemble those of P. hyoscyami. Experiments showed
that mangold-reared adults would not oviposit on belladonna, and vice
versa. Some natural control is secured by the parasitism of two species
of Braconids, on one or both of which a Proctotrypid is probably
hyper-parasitic.

S- Arachnida.

Nests of Pseudoscorpions.* — H. Wallis Kew has made a careful
study of these interesting structures. They are made in part or
wholly from silk produced by the pseudoscorpions, which enclose -them-
selves in the nests for moulting, for brood purposes, and in some cases
for hibernation. Such nests are closed cells of spun-tissue with or
without an external covering of extraneous materials. The internal
spun-tissue is thick and dense, almost like silk-paper. It is composed
of innumerable threads crossed and re-crossed, and coalesced in irregular
confusion and without interspaces.

The material is secreted by glands in the cephalothorax whose ducts
traverse the cheliceras and open at the tips of the branches of the galea,
or on or near the margin of a tubercle which replaces that structure in
some groups. Spinning is done with the chelicerte, the animal gradually
imprisoning itself. The construction of an external framework is the
first part of the task, silk threads forming an open irregular mesh-work
to which extraneous material is usually attached.

The silk is drawn from the galea or tubercle in several separate
viscid very fine threads, which remain separate or coalesce, all those
from each galea or tubercle sometimes forming a single thread. In
spinning there are continuous forward and backward movments of the
body and lateral movements of the chelicerae.

During the earlier parts of the work, when attachments are being
made from place to place, the threads usually coalesce, and since they
fuse at once, either before or after coalescing with other threads or
objects, the irregular mesh-work soon results. Afterwards the animal
settles down to long-continued spinning, and silk is rapidly brushed on
to the interior, first in one place and then in another. The threads
now usually fuse separately, being appbed in more or less parallel
series of several side by side ; and when both galeae or tubercles are
used together, ten or twelve threads may be deposited at a time. The
animal continues thus to work at intervals for days or even weeks, till
the final dense tissue is at last produced over every part of the interior

* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1914, pp. 93-111.

II

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 33

of the nest. The methods of three species, Ghelifer cyrneus, < '. latreillii,
and Obisium muscorum, were observed in detail. They were essentially
identical and probably characteristic of all Pseudoscorpiones.

«. Crustacea.

Inheritance in Parthenogenesis.* — W. E. Agar has made important
observations on inheritance in three Cladocera, Simocnphalus exspinosus,
S. vetnlus, Daphnia obtusa, and Macr o siphon anther inii&n Aphid. Where
it is necessary to express the group of individuals descended asexually (in
Agar's cases parthenogenetically) from a single ancestor. Small's word
clone " is used. When the population is known to have been descended
asexually from a single common ancestor, it consists of a single clone and
may be called monclonal. When it is composed of a number of clones
each descended from an original ancestor not asexually connected with
the original ancestors of the other clones, the population may be called
polyclonal.

The general result of the experiments with Cladocera was to show a
genetic identity between parent and offspring. In the experiment with
the Aphid there was a hint of a partial inheritance of individual varia-
tions, but it was found that this resemblance was probably not due to
inheritance proper. No mutation was observed in the Cladocera. Con-
spicuous variations when they occurred were tested by breeding, and
found to show no trace of inheritance. Such variations must therefore
be regarded as purely somatic modifications. Purely somatic fluctuation
is increased by subjection to abnormal conditions.

Parthenogenetic and Sexual Reproduction in Cladocera.* — W. E.
Agar publishes a paper which presents some new experimental evidence,
and points out some general indications that the change from partheno-
genetic to sexual reproduction, and the degeneration which so often ac-
companies it, is determined by environment only, and that the number of
preceding parthenogenetic generations, or the lapse of time since the last
sexual act are not, as such, relevant to the matter at all. His conclusions
refer mainly to Simocephalus vetulus, but may probably be safely extended
to a wide range of the Cladocera. They are as follows : — Certain not
yet fully elucidated factors in the environment influence the onset of
sexuality. Certain factors likewise bring about " degeneration," or high
rate of mortality. Certain factors of the environment may act cumu-
latively over a number of generations. Therefore the increasing sexuality
and " degeneration " (or high mortality) observed under certain sup-
posedly constant experimental conditions receive a ready explanation in
the supposition that the environment is one favourable to the develop-
ment of these phenomena. This explanation is made much more
probable when we find that under other experimental conditions there is
no tendency to increasing sexuality or degeneration. Many species
exhibit the phenomenon of specially labile periods, when sexuality is

* Phil. Trans., Series B, ccv. (1914) pp. 421-89.
t Journ. Genetics, iii. (1914) pp. 178-94.

Feb. nil,, 1915 I-

34 SUMMARY. OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

easily influenced by certain factors of the environment. This labile
condition is nsually ascribed to the fact that the line is in about the middle
of the reproductive cycle, the diminishing tendency to parthenogenesis'
being about equally balanced by the increasing tendency to sexual re-
production. Such a balanced condition must, however, be passed
through, whether the tendency to sexuality is being increased by the
progress of the " cycle," or by the cumulative effect of an unfavourable
environment. Hence, the existence of labile periods is as readily ex-
plained on the one hypothesis as on the other. There is no justification
for retaining the hypothesis of an inherent reproductive cycle, that
is to say, the hypothesis that the number of generations or lapse of
time since the last fertilized egg influences, as such, the production of
sexual or degenerate forms. For the production of these forms
is under certain conditions not influenced even by the lapse of an
enormous number of parthenogenetic generations, while their production
certainly is influenced by environment in other cases. The residuum of
cases being equally well explicable on either hypothesis (cycle or en-
vironment) it is most reasonable to suppose that the factor that was
effective in the one case was the one that was effective in the other, and.
conversely, that the ineffective factor of the one case (" reproductive
cycle ") was ineffective in the other.

Fresh-water Prawns from Tonkin.* — E. Sollaud describes Leander
mani sp. n. and Co ulierella tonhinensis g. etsp. n. The latter is one of
a number of small isolated fresh-water genera, such as Allocaris, Desmu-
caris, and Pseudopalsemon, oftenest with a single species, with large ova
and condensed development, and with a strange mixture of ancestral
and specialized characters. The structure of the maxilla in CoutiereUa
is very distinctive. In both types the eggs are large and relatively few,
and the development is condensed. The first larval form has all its
pereiopods and pleopods, and has even its uropods visible in a rudimen-
tary stage beneath the skin.

New Barnacles. f — Nelson Annandale describes some new and
interesting pedunculate Cirripedes from Indian seas. The collection
includes Al&pas investigator is sp. n. with translucent tissues, white
except the yellowish cement glands, found like other members of the
genus on the umbrella of a pelagic medusa. Another new form, Heteru-
lepas (Parahpas) reticulata sp. n., is a very small animal, found on spines
of Cidarid sea-urchins. The external appearance is very distinctive ;
the capitulum is almost globular ; there is no carinal crest, but the
posterior part and the sides are covered with a reticulation of deep
grooves, and in the centre of each mesh there is a projecting tubercle.
Below the aperture the surface is smooth or marked with irregular
(mostly transverse) grooves. No scuta can be distinguished, but the
outline of a pair of irregular areas is sometimes indicated on the smooth
anterior part of the capitulum, in the position the scuta would occupy.

* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxxix. (1914) pp. 314-24 (4 figs.).
t Records Indian Museum, x. (1914) pp. 273-320 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 35

Ostracod from Middle Devonian.* — Frederick Chapman describes
Primitia yassensis sp. n., based on an isolated specimen from the Middle
Devonian of New South Wales. It is nearly allied to P. scaphoides
Rupt. Jones, and belongs to the group of which P. munduld (Upper
Silurian to Lower Devonian) is the central type. He also describes a
patch of ostracodal limestone from the same district, showing that several
other genera besides Primitia are probably present in the Middle
Devonian limestone of Australia.

Annulata.

Parasitic Eunicid.f — M. Caullery describes Labidognathus parasiticus
g. et sp. n., a Eunicid Polychsete of parasitic habit. A few cases of Poly-
chaetes inside other Polychastes have been previously recorded : Lom-
briconereis (?) in Marphysa sanguined, Oligognathus bonelhse in Bonellia,
Haematocleptes terebellidis in Terebdlides stromi, Labrorostratus parasiticus
in various Syllids, Oligognathus parasiticus in Spio mecznikovianus, all
showing some retrogressive characters, e.g. as regards jaws, parapodia,
pigment, mucous glands of the ectoderm. Caullery's new instance was
found in a Terebellid from near Timor. The parasite was probably in
a peri-intestinal blood-sinus ; it had over a hundred segments. The
prostomium is without eyes or appendages ; the same is true of the
buccal and the succeeding segment. From the second metastomial
segment on ivards there are slightly developed parapodia. The maxillary
apparatus is of the Eunicid type, but slightly reduced.

Species of Pristina.t. — H. E. Hayden, jun. describes three new
species of Naiads in the genus Prist ina from Virginia and Texas. They
were found in ponds and aquaria along with species of Dero and other
fresh-water Oligochsets. One of the new forms, Prisiina antenniseta,
was remarkable in showing well-developed gonads at a time when the
animal was actively engaged in the process of fission.

British Leeches. § — L. A. L. King gives a welcome list of leeches
found in the Glasgow district. The Rhynchobdellidae included Tra-
chelobdella sp. from Acanthias vulgaris; Poritobdella muricata from
skates; and three from fresh water —Protoclepsis tessellata ("large
gelatinous-looking leeches, translucent, greyish green," sometimes
flecked with pigment, sometimes almost transparent, feeding mi water-
fowl) ; Glossosvphonia tuberculata ,• and Helobdella stagnalis. The
Arhynchobdellidae included Hsemopis sanguis uga and Herpobdella
octoculata both "common in Possil Marsh. Without any systematic
search, six, or possibly seven, of the thirteen known British species
were found around Glasgow and the Clyde Sea area.

* Journ. R. Soc. N.S. Wales, xlvii. (1914) pp. 244-7 (1 pi.).
+ C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxxvii. (1914) pp. 490 3 (4 figs.).
% Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxxiii. (1914) pp. 135-8,
§ Glasgow Naturalist, vi. fl91t) pp. 39-47.

D 2

36 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Nematohelminthes.

North American Fresh-water Nematodes.*— X. A. Cobb has
done a useful piece of work in giving an account of the North American
free-living fresh-water Nematodes. A [nut from bis own previous
investigations he has had an almost unworked held, and many new
forms have been discovered. He deals with 2* species, but no doubt
there is a horde of species awaiting discovery in Xorth American waters.
As in former papers, he makes much use of measurements of the worm
viewed in profile ; the first from the anterior end to the base of the
pharynx, the second to the nerve-ring, the third to the "cardiac con-
striction " or end of the neck, the fourth to the vulva in females and to
the middle of the body in males, and the fifth to the anus.

s

Classification of Strongylidas.f — M. Neveu-Lemaire discusses the
proposal of Railliet and Henry to divide the genus Nematodirus into
tw r o sub-genera — Nematodirus with the type Slrongylus filicolUi
(Rudolphi, 1802"), and Mecistocirrus with the type Strongylus digitatus
von Linstow, 1906. The author gives a good figure of the female
genital system in the two types, and shows that the sub-genera must be
regarded as genera. . In Nematodirus filicollis the vulva is towards the
posterior third of the body ; the vagina is very short ; the ovijectors are
well-developed ; one of the uteri runs posteriorly, the other anteriorly i
there are only a few large ova, their diameter equals that of the uterus ;
the ovaries are short, the anterior one extending towards the head, the
posterior one extending first backwards to the tail and then forwards.
In Mecistocirrus digitatus the vulva is posterior, a little in front of the
anus ; the vagina is very long ; the ovijectors are slightly developed ;
the two uteri are side by side, extending anteriorly, and containing a
considerable number of ova, small in proportion to the dimension of the
animal ; the ovaries are long and parallel, and describe circumvolutions
around the alimentary canal.

Ankylostomiasis in Dogs.J — W. Nicoll finds that the hook-worm
anaemia of dogs differs from that of man inasmuch as only young
animals suffer greatly, and the progress of the disease to a fatal termina
tion is very rapid. Older dogs are infected only to a moderate extent,
there is a minor degree of anaemia, and there is gradual recovery. The
anaemia in young dogs is characterized by great loss of weight, emacia-
tion, prostration, and intestinal haemorrhage. The blood volume of dogs
suffering from the minor degree of hook-worm anaemia is not materially
altered, but if anything is somewhat diminished. The oxygen capacity
of the blood per unit of body-weight is also, on the average, somewhat
decreased. Infection is generally accompanied by distinct though not
profuse haemorrhage, which is most marked in the early stages, but
tends to disappear. Eosinophilia was not a constant sign either of

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxxiii. (1914) pp. 69-119 (7 pis.),
t Bull. Soc. Zool. Fiance, xxxix. (1914) pp. 293-6 (2 figs.),
t Journ. Hygiene, xiii. (1914) pp. 369-92.

&

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 37

infection or of disease. Evidence of blood-regeneration was furnished
by the appearance of large numbers of erythroblasts (normoblasts) which
increased with the progress of the disease. Tats are much less easily
infected than dogs, and monkeys are altogether insusceptible. Man, also
was found to be insusceptible to infection with dog hook-worm.

Nematode Cyst in Alligator's Stomach.* — A. M. Reese describes
and figures a cyst of an immature Ascaris tenuicollis, 7-"> mm. in length,
found as a swelling on the outside of the stomach of an eighteen inch
Florida alligator.

Platyhelminthes.

New Genus of Avian Cestodes.f — H. A. Baylis describes Octo-
petalam gutterse sp. n. from the intestines of a guinea-fowl (Guttera
edouardi) from Nyasaland. The scolex is unarmed, without rostellum,
but with a slight conical papilla at the apex. The suckers are com-
pletely covered by overhanging epaulette-shaped appendages of their
anterior borders, each of these appendages having a marked median
cleft extending for some distance from its free edge. The neck is very
short. The segments are anteriorlv much broader than lono' : the
posterior segments are about three times as long as broad, the last being
the largest and narrowest. A single pair of lateral excretory vessels is
present throughout the strobila, connected in each segment by a trans-
verse vessel. There is a single set of reproductive organs in each
segment. The genital pores are irregularly alternate. The vagina
opens behind the cirrus-sac, in the same horizontal plane. A paruterine
organ is developed in front of the uterus in the gravid segments. The
yolk-gland is dorsal to the ovary. The eggs have three transparent
envelopes. In the " auricular appendages " of the suckers and in external
appearance the new genus resembles Tetrabothrius : in the possession of
a paruterine organ it approaches more nearly to the Idiogeninre among
the Davaineidas, or to the Paruterininaj among the Hymenolepidte.

Studies on Cestodes.f — F. E. Beddard describes Kliabdometra
cylindrica sp. n. from an African partridge. It is a long slender form,
about a millimetre in diameter. He also discusses the structure of
OtiiHtsenia eupodotidis with especial reference to the hint of the beginning
of a paruterine organ. There is an alteration of structure in the whole
medullary layer in the direction of increased firmness ; but there is no
special part of that parenchyma set apart for the sheltering of the
growing embryos. In genera like Oochoristica and Lmstowia the ripe
embryos lie in the unaltered parenchyma. A slight increase of special-
ization of the conditions observable in Otiditsenia leads at once to such a
form as Sphyroiicotseaia where a large conical paruterine organ exists.
which is distinct from the surrounding medullary parenchyma.

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, xxxiii. (1914) p. 138 (1 pi.).
t Ann. Nat. Hist., xiv. (1914) pp. 414-20 (2 pis.), jj
\ Proc. Zool. Soc, 1914, pp. 859-87 (11 figs.).

38 SUMMARY OF QUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Trematodes of North Queensland.* — \V. Nicoll establishes two
new genera, Dolichopera from a carpet-snake and Aptorchis from a
turtle, both referred provisionally to the family Lepodermatidse. In

Dolichopera, the cuticle is covered with spines ; the ventral sucker is
smaller than the oral sucker and situated behind the middle of the I tody ;
the oesophagus is short, and the diverticula extend to near the posterior
end of the body ; the genital aperture is between the oral sucker and
the margin of the body, on the right or left side : the cirrus-pouch is
sinuous and elongated ; the ovary is behind the right posterior quadrant
of the ventral sucker ; the testes are behind the ovary near, the posterior
end of the body, longitudinally oval and somewhat asymmetrical, the
left testis being in advance ; the yolk-glands are entirely lateral in the
posterior part of the body ; the uterus is very voluminous, filling up the
whole of the middle of the body, and passing between the testes only
for a very short distance. The ova are 0*03 to 04 mm. in length,
and about 0*02 mm. in breadth.

In Aptorchis, the cuticle is beset with moderately large spines : the
intestinal diverticula are short ; the testes are exactly midway between
the ventral sucker and the posterior end of the body ; the ovary lies
midway between the two surfaces ; it is almost median and somewhat
oval ; the yolk-glands are entirely lateral and extend from a little
behind the ventral sucker to the posterior end of the body ; the uterus
is very voluminous; the numerous ova measure 0*028 to 0*031 mm.
by 0*018 to 0*019 mm. The author also describes new species of
Glonorchis, Echinostoma, Eurgtrema, Mesomlium, Lepoderma, Prostho-
gonimus, Hemistomum, Strigea, and Telracotyle.

Trematode Parasites of Fishes from the English Channel. f
W. Nicoll examined 79 species of fishes (475 specimens) arid found
80 p.c. (380) infected with parasitic worms — 56 p.c. with Trematodes,
44 p.c. with Cestodes, 48 p.c. with Nematodes, and 2 p.c. with Echino-
rhynchs. Fifty different species of Trematodes were obtained, about
three-fifths of the total number of Trematodes known to occur iu British
marine fishes. Nicoll describes Steringotrema pagelli (Nicoll), Bacciger
bacciger (Rud., Stoss), Bucephalus minimus (Stossich), Rhipidocot g I c
minima (Wagener), R. viperse (van Ben.), Prosorhynclius triglse (?), and
other forms.

Incertse Sedis.

Development of Balanoglossus clavigerus.J — G. Stiasny traces
the development from the egg to the Tornaria, which takes about forty
hours. The cleavage is at first total and equal, and of the radial type ;
inequality sets in at the fourth division. A morula is formed which
becomes a cceloblastula. The flattened cells of the vegetative pore are
invaginated' in gastrulation and the blastopore is shut. From the most
anterior part of the archenteron the water-vascular vesicle is constricted

* Parasitology, vi. (1914) pp. 333-50 (2 pis.).

* Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 466-505 (6 figs.).

J Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., ox. (1914) pp. 36-75 (3 pis. and 24 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 39

i iff. The history of the hydrocoel is traced, and the formation of the
apical plate and oral invagination. The newly emerged club-shaped
larva has very lone cilia and a marked heliotropisin. The form known
as Tornaria miilleri is the pelagic stage of Bdlanoglossus clavigerus ; it
shows no hint of heart or coelome ; it passes into a Tornaria krohnii
stage. The first pair of coelomic sacs arise as solid outgrowths on both
sides of the posterior gut. An account is given of the structure and
development of the apical plate and of the eve.

Echinoderina.

Echinus Hybrids.* — H. M. Fuchs made a cross between Echinus
esculentus 9 and E. acutus £ , and successfully reared four of the
hybrids. Two of them have laid eggs. Some eggs and sperms were
obtained, and the fertilized ova yielded healthy larvae (F 2 generation).
When a larger number of the F l hybrids have been reared, an examin-
ation of the characters of the fully grown urchins should decide whether
the fertile intermediate forms found in the sea are hybrids or extreme
variants of one of the two species.

When the ova of E. miliar is were fertilized with the sperm of the
Fj hybrid, or when the sperm of E. miliaris was used to fertilize the
ova of the F, hvbrid. it was found that E. esculentus characters and
E. acutus characters were developed in both crosses.

The F 2 generation obtained from the E. esculentus and E. acutus
hybrids can give no information as to the inheritance of the late larval
characters, since the latter are alike in the two species. It is the F 2
feneration from hybrids between E. esculentus or E. acutus and E. miliaris
that will give this valuable information ; but no forms of this genera-
tion have as yet reached maturity.

Development of Common Starfish. t — J. F. Gemmill has studied
the development of Asterias rubens, the common starfish. The spawn-
ing season is from the end of April till the beginning of July. Matur-
ation is in progress while the eggs are being shed. Segmentation is
total and equal, or practically equal ; the blastula wall is a single layer :
the gastrula is formed by invagination ; the mesenchyme arises, after
gastralation, from the enlarged blind end of the archenteron.

The gastrula elongates and the blastopore migrates ventralwards ;
the stomodaeal pit and circumoral depression forms near the middle of
the ventral surface ; the preoral and postoral bands merge at first into
an antero-dorsal strongly ciliated area ; these bands are next continuous
in the auricularia and then divide in the bipinnaria. The typical larval
filiated processes grow out, all relatively long, slender, and freely movable,
especially the postero-lateral pair. The brachia have the preoral band
continued over them, and have truncated ends bearing six to eight
papillae. The sucker is well-marked with usually two papillae on each
side of it : the posterior part of the larval body becomes disk-like and

* Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 464-5.
t Phil. Trans., Ser. B, ccv. (1914) pp. 213-94 (7 pis.).

40 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

shows five arm-rudiments in crescentic series. There is an interval
(aboral brachiolarian Qotch) between the antero-dorsal and antero-
ventral arm-rudiments (rudiments ir and [). Ciliation persists from the

blastula stage onwards. Imt becomes lessened over the general surface.
The ciliated hands are locomotor except the transverse portion of the
preoral hand. The special adoral ciliation consists of the peristomal
ring- and oesophageal loop, and acts towards the stomach except on ;i
small segment of the peristomal ring. The surface between the preoral
and postoral hands is a food-gathering area ; the buccal cavity and the
first part of the oesophagus can be emptied by a backward flexion of the
preoral lobe.

The author describes the internal structure of the larva, and the
process of metamorphosis in its external and internal aspects, and directs
attention to the following conclusions of morphological or general
interest : —

The presence of a rudimentary posterior enteroceelic outgrowth
suggests a principle which goes far to reconcile or explain what seemed
extremely divergent modes of origin of the enterocceles in starfish and
Echinoderms, and in Enteropneusts.

There is morphological equivalence between the epigastric i larval
right posterior) coelom and the hypogastric (larval left posterior) coelom.
In the early larva there is a right middle ccelomic region morphologically
equivalent to the region on the left side which gives rise to the
hydroccele, viz. the left middle ccelomic region. No rudiments of the
right hydroccelic region are recognizable after normal metamorphosis.

The separation of the young starfish from its stalk, and certain
other considerations, harmonize with the view that the asterid and the
crinoid stalks are morphologically equivalent. The dorsal sac is an
" epicardial " pulsating sac homologous with the pericardium of Balano-
glossus. There is detailed morphological and probably also functional
correspondence between the haemal systems of Asterids and Enteropneusts.
In particular, the axial organ and pharyngeal coelom of Axteria* are
homologous respectively with the left pharyngeal vessel and the left
pharyngeal coelom of Balanoglossus. A bilateral " starfish " can result
from the metamorphosis of a double-hydrocosle brachiolaria.

The rays of a starfish should be numbered according to a scheme
which makes the anal inter-radius in part the most anterior and in part
the most posterior of the inter-radii. There is evidence of the existence
in the late larva? of a sub-epidermal nervous network and of a system
of n euro-muscular fibres. Of all Echinoderm larvae the brachiolarian
type has probably retained the greatest numb : of primitive characters
and acquired the smallest number of secondaiy characters. New data
are given regarding a number of points relating to adult structure and
function, e.g. regions and curvature of the alimentary canal, the structure
and function of the madreporite, the hamial system, the ccelomic and
perihaemal ciliation, etc.

Studies on Holothuroids.* — Joseph Pearson proposes a re-classifica-
tion of genera MiiUeria and ffolothuria, which have been separated by

* Spolia Zeylauica, ix. (1914) pp. 163-72 (1 pi.).

•

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 41

a single character, namely the presence of anal teeth in the former and
the absence of these structures in the latter. He finds reason to unite
the genera under the title Holothuria, with five sub-genera. Of these
the old genus Holothuria includes three — Bohadschia, Halodeima, and
Thymosicya, and the old genus Mulleria two — Actinopyga and Argiodia.
The number and arrangement of the tentacles, Polian vesicles, and
stone canals are variable characters even within the limits of a single
species. This is also true of the Cuvierian organs. There are only four
characters of any taxonomic value in the genus. These are (1) the
arrangement of the ambulacral appendages : (2) the nature of the
spicules ; (8) the presence or absence of anal teeth ; and (4) the structure
of the calcareous ring. With reference to these — the calcareous ring-
primarily — Pearson classifies the sub-genera. He also deals with the
numerous Indian Ocean species of Holothuria* including two new
species, and with the Indian Ocean species of Argiodia\ and Actinopyga.
Diagnoses and figures of the calcareous corpuscles are given.

Coelentera.

New Alcyonarian Genus. J — S. F. Light describes Lemnalioides
Tcukenthali g.etsp. n. from the Philippines. The colony is upright,
tree-like, or bushy, and consists of a number of stems coalesced in one
or more groups for some distance above the base. The tubular, non-
tractile polyps are scattered singly or in little groups on the branches
and lateral and terminal twigs. The spiculation of the cortex and the
canal walls is similar to that in Lemnalia. The tentacles contain a very
few very small scattered spicules, and the stomodaaum contains no
spicules. The tentacles bear more than one row of pinnules and show a
median longitudinal band of muscle-fibres on their outer surfaces.

The author emends the diagnosis of the genus Lemnalia, from which
the new genus then differs in that the tentacles contain very few spicules
and the stomadaeum none, and in that there is a double row of pinnules
on each side of the tentacles. The new genus is intermediate between
Lemnalia and Lithophytum, but is much nearer the former. It differs
from Paralemnalia most distinctly in its more tree-like colony form, in
that the polyps are sometimes arranged in little groups and are borne
on the branches and twigs, in the absence of stomodaeal spicules, and in
the scarcity of spicules in the tentacles. It is suggested that Para-
lemnalia, Lemnalia, and Lemnalioides, might be ranked us a sub-family
Lemnaliinte within the family Nephthyidse.

Philippine Scyphomedusae.§ — S. F. Light describes a number of
interesting new forms. He establishes a- new Rhizostomatoiis genus
Acromitus, which is most closely related to Catostglus, and less closelj
to Lychnorhiza and Crambione. He emends the generic characters of
Lobonema Mayer, and places near it a new genus Lobonemoides.

* Spolia Zeylanica, ix. (1914) pp. 49-101 (10 pis.).

t Spolia Zeylanica, ix. (1914) pp. 173-90.

X Philippine Journ. Sci., ix. (1914) pp. 233-45 (1 pi. and 8 figs.).

^Philippine Journ. Sci., ix. (1914) pp. 195-231 (16 figs.).

42 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Stylasterids.* — Hjahnar Broch deals in a very careful manner with
northern Stylasterids : 1'lwbnlhrns symmetricus ; Stylaster gemmascens
and Stylaster roseas, both of which he includes .in a new subgenus
Eustyhtxtrr -. and Stylaster norvegicus, which he refers in the subgenus
AJlopora. The structure of these four forms is discussed and finely
illustrated. A consideration of affinities leads him to the conclusion
that the Hydroeorallines are two convergent families of Hydroids,
marked by their calcareous skeleton and dimorphism. The family
Milleporidaj probably had its origin from the Corynidre and the Stylas-
terids from the Bouganvilliidas. Broch calls attention to the interesting
fact that as in many other ( Vlenterates, so in the four northern Stylas-
terids, the skeleton is formed of Aragonite. As all Aragonite contains
magnesium, this means that the animals have the power to make use of
the magnesium in the sea water. But why some corals should have
aragonite skeletons and others (like Corallium, Tubipora, Cystvphyllvm,
and Anabacia) should have calcite skeletons remains quite obscure.

Hydroids of the Great Australian Bight.f— W. M. Bale describes
some new species, e.g. of Gryptolaria, Hypopyxis, and Nemertesia. As in
a former report, the Plumularians predominate, and are of interest as
including types of Aglaoph&nia and Halicornaria not previously known

from Australian localities.

Restitution Masses formed by the Dissociated Cells of Hydroids. i
W. de Morgan and G. H. Drew have made a study of the restitution
masses formed by the dissociated cells of the Hydroids Antentoularia
ramosa and A . antennina Their results largely bear out those obtained
by H. Y. Wilson, but the histological structure of the restitution masses
differed in many ways from that described by Wilson. The Hydroids
were cut in pieces and pressed through bolting silk, with the result that
isolated cells and small cell-aggregates were obtained, which soon aggre-
gated together to form compact masses. These restitution masses
secreted a perisarc within from 12 to IX hours. Various changes in
shape, and general retraction of the mass away from the perisarc
occurred later, but even up to sixty days there was no sign of the
regeneration of the hydranths. The restitution masses consisted of
ectoderm and endoderm cells, and in addition such structures as nemato-
cysts, ova and broken-down cells, all of which were subsequently
absorbed, and played no part in the future development. The ectoderm
cells were relatively little damaged, and were embedded in a plasmodial
mass formed by the endoderm cells. A definite layer of ectoderm cells
is formed on the surface, and these cells secrete the perisarc. Gradual
aggregation and segregation of the endoderm cells from the plasmodial
mass takes place ; and they form very definite tubules, very similar in
structure to the ccenosarcal tubules continuous with the enteric cavities
of the normal hydranths. These tubules are embedded in a mass of
ectoderm cells ; they are convoluted and ramify in all directions. Many

* Danish Ingolf Exped., v. (1914) pp. 1-25 (5 pis. and 6 figs.).

t Biol. Results Fishing Experiments Australia, ii. (1914) pp. 166-88 (4 pis.).

J Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 440-63.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICEOSCOPY, ETC 43

granules develop in the cytoplasm of these cells, and after about a
month many of them have degenerated. The ectodermal cells show no
signs of degeneration, though the masses containing them have been
kept alive for sixty days. In none of the experiments was there any
sign of cell-division. The experiments in question resulted in the
production of masses that were abnormal and pathological, but the
segregation and re-arrangement of the cells after isolation, and the
comparatively long duration of life of the tumour-like masses to which
they give rise are facts of considerable theoretical interest.

Protozoa.

Amoebae of Larval Tipula.* — Doris L. MacKinnon suggests that
some system of interchange of preparations would almost certainly check
the output of unnecessary " new species." Since Schaudinn's work in
1903, the literature dealing with amoebae has yearly increased, and in
following up any particular clue it is becoming a very formidable task
to unravel the criss-cross strands of evidence. While a good deal is
known of the parasitic amoeba of Vertebrates, those of Invertebrates
have received much less attention. It seems that Entamoeba blattee
Biitschli stands by itself ; Malpighiella from the flea and the leech is a
well-defined genus of which the division and encystment are known.
Of the others, Amoeba chironomi, with its Umax-like nucleus and con-
tractile vacuole, is not like any true parasitic anxeba yet described, while
Alexeieff regards Entamoeba aulastomi from the horse-leech as identical
with E. ranarum from the frog.

A description is given of Loschia hartmanni sp. n., a small amceba
from the intestine of crane-fly larvae. Encystment follows on copula-
tion betweeu gamete aincebulae. The average diameter of the cyst is
"lily 8 \i : the cyst wall is remarkably thick : within the cyst the zygote
nucleus divides to form at least ten nuclei. This amceba is subject to
tiic attacks of an organism that is probably allied to the Micrococcus,
described by Nagler in his study of Amceba horticold and a small limax-
amceba. Besides Loschia hartmanni there is a species of VaMkampfia
feeding well and dividing in the intestine of the larva of Tipula. Eleven
different Protozoa are now known from this habitat.

Notes on Soil Protozoa.*— C. H. Martin and K. R. Lewin have
established the occurrence of a trophic Protozoan fauna in certain field
snils. In a cucumber bed they found VaMkampfia soli sp. n.. a very
active form moving at times by means of a single large pseudopodium,
and at other times by means of two anterior flagella, The significance
of the flagellate stages is unknown ; whether their appearance forms
grounds for removing the limax-amce))X from the group of true amoebic
and placing them amongst the Proteomyxa is a question that future
work must decide. In the same bed they found Anueba cucumis sp. n.,
and in a seedling bed a species of Euglypha, Ghlamydophrys. several

* Arch. Protistenk., xxxii. (1914) pp. 267-77 (2 pis.).
t Phil. Trans., Series B, ccv. (1914) pp. 77-94 (2 pis.).

44 si MMAR1 OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

species of amoebae, a flagellate amoeba, Bodo caudatus and Amoeba
gobanniensis sp n.. evidently closely allied to the Amoeba cucumis foupd
in the cucumber soil. Et seems clear that the genus Amaiba must be
broken up, and a step in this reform has been taken by Ohatton who
founded the genus Vdhlkampfia for the groupof limax-a,mceb&. It will
probably be found necessary to form another genus for the lamelli/podia
group of aincebae.

Rhizopods and Heliozoa from Fresh-water in Holland.* — H. R.
Hoogenraad continues his study of the fresh-water Protozoa of Holland,
and deals in his report with no fewer than 86 species of such genera as
Amoeba, Uiftiwjiu. Arcella, Euglypha, Actinophrys, Clathrulina, and
t 'lathrella.

New Phytoflagellate and its Division.! — A. Pringle Jameson
describes Parapolytoma satura g. et sp. n. obtained from a culture made
by adding to garden soil some hay-infusion which had been boiled for
several minutes. It has a superficial resemblance to the well known
Polytoma uvella, but shows constant and well marked points of difference.
At the obliquely truncated anterior end there is a quite unusual shallow
depression ; the whole body is surrounded by a substantia] pellicle ;
there are two flagella arising from two small basal granules situated just
under the membrane on the anterior end ; there is no hint of any con-
nexion between the nucleus and the basal granules. The nucleus is of
the vesicular type with a central karyosome moored by delicate achro-
matin strands. Round the nucleus there is a small area of very granular
cytoplasm, but elsewhere it is seen only as a fine meshwork surrounding
great masses of reserve products. One contractile vacuole was seen at
the base of the flagella. There is no chromatophore or eye-spot. The
position of the organism is in the family Chlamydomonadida-.

Within the pellicle there is division into four daughter-individuals.
The division of the nucleus is described in detail. At no stage can any
structure be found which could be interpreted as a centriole. The
basal granules are of a very simple type, and are derived directly by
budding from the karyosome of the nucleus.

■-

Dermocystidium pusula Parasitic on Trout. J — J. 8. Dunkerly

describes a stage of this parasite, which he found in a cyst on the gill
of Trutta fario. The stage in question consisted of a plasmodium or a
mass of ill-defined cells within a cyst wall. The nest stage consists of
a collection of distinct cells, each with a peculiar cell inclusion, and it is
at this stage that the individual cells or spores (?) are set free by rupture
of the cyst membrane. The fact that at one stage of its life-history
the cells of Dermocystidium exhibit characteristic cell inclusion is
another distinction, to be added to those enumerated by Perez, between
it and Blastoeystis Alexeieff .

* Tijdschr. Nederland. Dierk. Yer., xiii. (1914) pp. 341-G9.
t Arch. Protistenk., xxxiii. (1914) pp. 21-44 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

J Zool. Anzeig., xliv. (1914) pp. 179-82.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 15

Development of Trypanosoma noctuse in the Gnat.* - - H. M.
Woodcock describes the developmental stages which arc passed through
in the female gnat (Gulex pipiens) by Trypanosoma noctuse of the Little
Owl Trypanomonad fusiform forms are the earliest developmental
stages ; these are transformed into an elongated trypaniform condition ;
there is a final much attenuated propagative form. Another line of
development proceeds also from the original type of trypanomonad indi-
vidual, by a modification in form and in mode of division. A club-
shaped form with markedly unequal division results. In the mosquito
there is the same club-shaped type, and this line of development leads
ultimately to the production of small pear-shaped or oval parasites, with
the nuclei close together and situated about the middle of the body, or
nearer the posterior end, and with the flagellum drawn back but with
practically no membrane. This is the haptomonad phase, which serves
for attachment and coincident multiplication. The early development
of Trypanosoma noctuse in the mosquito culminates in the production of
two distinct and extreme types — thread-like and haptomonad — the
former being probably the propagative individual. After comparing
Trypanosoma noctuse with the two other parasites of the Little Owl, viz.
H alter idium noctuse and Leucocytozoon ziemanni, Woodcock comes to the
conclusion that the three are entirely distinct.

New Hsematozoon.f — Ed. Chatton and G. Blanc describe Pirhemo-
eyton tarentolse from the blood of the Gecko, Tarentola mauritanica, which
also contains Leishmania tropica. The new parasite begins within the
blood-corpuscle as a nucleated spherical body, about 1 /x in diameter,
and grows into a pyrif orrn body 3 to 4 /x in length by 1 • 5 to 2 /a in
breadth. It is like a microsporidian spore, but has no envelope. It is
situated in a vacuole in the cytoplasm. The parasitized blood-corpuscle
shows in its cytoplasm a refractive inclusion. 7 to 8 /x in diameter, which
seems to be due indirectly to the Haematozoon.

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., lx. (1914) pp. 399-433 (3 pis. and 1 fig.),
t C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, lxxvii. (1914) pp. 496-8.

4li SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Structure and Development.
Vegetative.

Leaf-anatomy of Andropogon.* — E. Breakwell lias studied the leaf-
anatomy of several species of Andropogon indigenous to New South
Wales, with special reference to similarities or differences in the structure
associated with the habit or habitat. From an anatomical standpoint
the species fall into three groups: Group 1 including A. intermedins,
A. affinis, and A. sericeus -. group 2 including A. Tschsemum : and
group 3 including A. refract us and A. bombycimis.

Group 1 is characterized as a whole by well-developed sclerenchyma.
but A. intermedins shows well-defined structural differences from the
other two species. The primary bundles of the midrib are more
numerous, while there is also a larger number of secondary bundles
accompanied by a corresponding increase in sclerenchyma. A. sericeus
has the largest amount of sclerenchyma and serves as a connecting link
with group 2, which has a much greater amount of this tissue, a thicker
cuticle and more numerous and densely crowded vascular bundles.
Group 3 shows extreme development of sclerenchyma and great thicken-
ing of the cuticle, while the stomata are in grooves on the lower surface,
an arrangement not found in either of the other groups. Ecological
characteristics are most marked in this group ; in addition to other
characters mentioned above, each of the species has water-storage tissue
near the upper surface and the "girdle-canals" of A. bombycinm are
probably useful in reducing transpiration. The habitat of these species
corresponds with the sclerophytic characters. A. Ischseirmm is inter-
mediate between the species of group 1 and those of group 2, both as
regards habitat and xerophytic characters. All the species of group 1
appear to be mesophytic both in structure and habitat.

Xerophilous Characters of Hakea.f — A. G. Hamilton has studied
the morphological and anatomical characters of Halcea dactyloides, a
shrub found in sandy regions and on the Hawkesbury Sandstone near
Sydney. The stems are tough and woody and covered with hairs, while
the vascular bundles contain numerous stout-walled fibres. The leaves
are few, arranged spirally and vertically, and the size varies according to
the season ; there are three main veins and another of smaller size

* Proc Linn. Soc. N.S.W.. xxxix. (1914) pp. 385-94 (5 pis).
t Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxxix. (1914) pp. 152-6 (2 pis).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 47

round the margin. Numerous stomata are found on both Bides of the
leaves, and are overarched by small epidermal cells, among which are
scattered capitate hairs ; the cuticle is very thick. The mesophyU is
composed of a double layer of palisade-cells separated by a layer of
irregular rounded cells ; there ace no intercellular spaces except beneath
the stomata. Embedded in the mesophyU are numerous scleroblasts,
either simple and columnar or large branched structures, usually confined
to the outer palisade-layer, through which the branches extend until they
reach the inner wall of the epidermis, beneath which they expand. The
leaves of plants grown in the shade differ greatly from those grown in
the open. The leaf itself is thinner, the cuticle is thin and transparent,
while both epidermal and palisade-cells are considerably shorter. There
are fewer hairs and stomata, and the structure of the latter is less com-
plex. Scleroblasts are rare, w T hile the mesophyU is irregular and has
intercellular spaces. The difference in structure is apparently an adapta-
tion to xerophytic conditions. The thick dark-coloured cuticle, the
regular and closely-packed mesophyll-cells with the accompanying
scleroblasts, appear to have the same function, viz. to diminish trans-
piration. The sclerenchymatous fibres of the vascular bundles give
rigidity to the leaf and also assist in the reduction of transpiration.

Reproductive.

Mechanism of Anther-dehiscence.*— M. Schips has studied the
causes of the opening of anthers, and shows that the results of his ex-
periments are in opposition to the theory supported by Hannig and
other writers, according to which the opening is caused by contraction
resulting from cohesion. In the first part of the work the author dis-
cusses the theory in relation to his own experiments dealing with
(1) the air-contents of the anthers at the time of opening and the
opening in moist air ; (2) the formation of folds in thin membrane ; and
(3) the method of bringing about the opening by liquids capable of
removing water ; in each case it is maintained that the majority of the
results are in conflict with the " cohesion theory." In the second part
the author deals with the hygroscopic mechanism, and expresses the
opinion that the shrinking of the thickened fibres is insufficient to cause-
opening. The present review by E. Hannig criticizes the unsatisfactory
methods of experiments described and their untrustworthy results.

Delayed Germination of Alisma.t, — W. Crocker and W. E. Davis
have studied the germination of Alisma Plaatago, with the following
results : Dormancy of the seed is due to the mechanical restraint of the
seed-coat, which enables the seed to remain in water for years without
germination. Neither the w T all of the carpel nor the outer "seed -coat has
any influence on dormancy, which is apparently due to the two inner
seed-coats. The slightly swollen embryo lies for years within the
saturated seed coat, against which it exerts a pressure of about loo

* Beih. Bot. Centralbl., lte Abt., xxxi. (1913) pp. 1-92. See also Zeitschr.
Bot., vi. (1914) pp. 564-7.

t Bot. Gaz., lviii. (1941) pp. 285-321 (8 figs.).

4S SUMMARY OF GUItLtKNT KKSKARCHES RELATING TO

atmospheres. When the seed-coai is removed from the large end of the
embryo, the latter is free to swell, and the seed gains LOO p.c. in weight
in 20 hours. II' the coal is removed from both ends, the embryo
elongates L9 p.c. in 2\ hours ami 30 p.c. in ."> hours. This elongation is
only due to growth in a very small degree, but an increase of 36 p.c. in
length after 16 hours soakiug involves considerable growth. Tin- seed-
coat is composed almost entirely of pectic compounds, easily transformed
by weak acids and bases. A.cids appear to increase the absorptive powers
of the embryo and bases increase the rale of elongation, so that both
bring about a weakening of the seed-coat. In common with the seeds
of many other aquatic plants, the seeds of Alisma are capable of retain-
ing their vitality for many years, when saturated with water. The
embryo can elongate 120 p.c. at the expense of its stored foods, in the
absence of free oxygen, but the latter is necessary for the development of
the radicle and plumule and for the formation of chlorophyll.

•CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

(By A. Gepp, M.A., F.L.S.)

Spermatogenesis in Marsilia.* — L. W. Sharp gives an account of
spermatogenesis in Marsilia. In 11)12 f he showed that the blepharo-
plasts of Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, and Gymnosperms are derived onto-
genetically or phylogeneticafly from centrosomes. He summarizes his
j tresent paper as follows : — 1. In the first spermatogenous mitosis there
is present at each spindle pole a dense region with radiations, but no
centrosome. 2. During anaphase of the second mitosis a centrosome
develops at each spindle pole, and at telophase divides to two daughter-
centrosomes. These only rarely develop farther ; they usually de-
generate at once in the cytoplasm. 3. In the third mitosis a centrosome
develops at each spindle pole at anaphase exactly as in the second
mitosis, and during telophase or later divides to two daughter-centro-
somes. 4. These daughter-centrosomes, which may now be called
blepharoplasts, move apart and occupy the spindle poles through the
fourth or final mitosis. 5. The centrosomes are at all times accompanied
by extensive radiations, which in the fourth mitosis give rise to the
achromatic figure. When the centrosome divides there is present a
central spindle and amphiaster as in animal cells. (!. Before the fourth
mitosis is completed the blepharoplast becomes vacuolate and breaks up
into a number of fragments. In the spermatid these form a band which
elongates spirally in close union with the nucleus and bears the cilia.
7. The evidence afforded by Marsilia, together with that gained from
other plants and certain animals, is believed to show conclusively that
the blepharoplasts of Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, and Gymnosperms are
derived ontogenctically or phylogenetically from centrosomes.

* Bot. Gaz., lviii. (1914) pp. 419-31 (2 pis.).
t Bot. Gaz., liv. (1912) pp. 89-119.

ZOOLOGY A.ND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 49

Pinna-trace in Ferns.* — 11. C. Davie publishes an accounl of the
pinna-trace in the Ferns, lie briefly notices previous papers on the
subject. There are two types of pinna-trace departure — the marginal
and the extramarginal. 1. In the marginal type the first indication of
the preparation for the departure of the pinna-trace, as the leaf-trace is
followed up the petiole, is an extension of the mass of tracheides on the
adaxial side of the petiole. In Asplenium obtusatum, a typical example,
the two mas>es of xylera are curved in outline, the convex sides of the
curves being directed towards each other. The adaxial extremities of
these xylem masses become extended towards the adaxial corners of the
petiole. As the pinnre are not inserted exactly opposite to each other
first the extremity of one and then that of the other xylem-mass is
separated off from the parent trace. Phloem completely surrounds the
xylem in both portions of the leaf-trace, and the marginal tracheides
when nipped off are surrounded by a narrow ring of phloem. There are
protoxylem elements at the abaxial tips of the leaf -trace and on the
adaxial sides, not far from the ends. The pinna-trace has one small
protoxylem group on one side at the time of separation. As the
tracheides at the margin of the leaf-trace strand are separated from the
parent strand to supply the pinna-trace, this type of pinna supply is
termed marginal. 2. The extramarginal type differs in leaving the
leaf-trace margins intact throughout the petiole. In Didymochlsena
truncatula the leaf-trace i> composed of several strands. The two
adaxial strands have their margins sharply recurved, so that they are
almost parallel to the adaxial surface of the petiole. To supply the
basal pinna, the back of the hook is lengthened towards the adaxial
corner of the petiole. Across the narrow space between the two strips
of tracheidal tissue thus formed new tracheides spread. The original
outline of the leaf-trace strand is thus re-formed, while a ring of
tracheides is attached to the back of its hooked portion. This ring
soon separates, to pass into the base of the pinna and then divide up
into a pinna-trace resembling the leaf-trace. The margin of the parent
trace remains intact during the process. Since the pinna-trace goes off
from the outside of the parent strand, the method of supply is termed
extramarginal.

Various modifications of these two types are described by the author ;
and he also gives a classified table of the results of his investigation.
This table is the subject of a detailed discussion in which a comparison
is made with the structure of the leaf -trace in fossil ferns. Further,
the relationship of the tracheidal tissue to the water-supply of the upper
part of the frond is discussed, together with the question why the
marginal type of pinna-trace is more prevalent than the other.

Azolla filiculoides.t — W. H. Burred gives an account of the
morphology and development of Azollajiliculoides, and of its life-history
as studied in Norfolk. He has specially examined the conditions of
spore-germination — the requirements of moderate temperature, illumina-
tion, and aeration. He is strongly of opinion that the only species of

* Trans. Rov. Soc. Edinburgh, 1. (1914) pp. 849-78 (3 pis. and figs.).
t Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc. ix. (1914) pp. 734-42 (1 pi.).

Feb. nth, 1915 v.

50 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Azolla growing in the British Isles [% A. filiculoides, and thai the records
of A. caroliniana arc based upon error. Ee adds some notes on the
receni spread of the plant over the Norfolk Broads.

Dryopteris.*— C. Christensen publishes notes on some species of
Dryopteris recently collected in tropical America, two of which —
D. (Lastrea) Shaferi and D. (Lastrea) Jimemzii — are new to science ; and
their characteristic structure is described. In discussing the peculiarities
of D. {Stigmatopteris) cyelocolpa the author claims that Stigmatopteris is
worthy of generic rank.

Ferns of Lord Howe Island.! — W. W. Watts publishes some

additional notes on the ferns of Lord Howe Island — the result partly of
a recent visit to the island by R. B. Oliver. He founds a new species,
P. Whiteleggei upon the plant locally known as " heavy fern,' 1 and states
that his previous species P. Kingii is to be referred to P. Moorei Christ.
Three species of Dryopteris grow in the island, and have been the subject
of some confusion. Marattia fraxinea var. salicina appears to be a valid
variety. Ophioglossun vulgatmn var. lanceolatum is a variable plant
and has been split into various species by previous writers. Four tree-
ferns occur in the island ; and Oliver's careful field-notes concerning
their trunks, stipites, rhachises, costas, etc. are incorporated ; and a new
description of Alsophila robusta C. Moore is added.

Bryophyta.
(By A. Gepp.)

Morphology and Development of Symphyogyna.^: — Florence A.
McCormick publishes a study of Symphyogyna aspera,a Mexican hepatic,
and gives the following summary : 1. The thallus has a central strand
of greatly elongated cells which taper at both ends. The walls of these
cells have narrow pores, spirally arranged. 2. The species is dioicous ;
and the male plants are more slender than the female. 3. The anther-
idia are dorsally scattered over the thickened part of the thallus, each
antheridium being surrounded by a scale. 4. The archegonia occur in
groups on the dorsal side of the thallus, each group being on a pad-like
extension of the thallus and surrounded by an involucre. 5. More than
one embryo may be formed in a group, but so far only one has been
found to reach maturity. 6. As the embryo elongates, the calyptra and
pad also elongate ; and the old archegonia are left on the tip of the calyptra.
7. The young embryo develops by segmentation similar to that formed
by a dolabrate apical cell. 8. The sporogenous tissue is differentiated
relatively late in the history of the sporophyte. <). The cells which are
to form elaters may early be distinguished from the cells which arc
ultimately to give rise to the spore-mother-cells. The former cells

* American Fern Journ., iv. (1914) pp. 77-83.

t Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxxix. (1914) pp. 257-62.

1 Bob. Gaz., lviii. (1914) pp. 401-18 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 51

elongate without further division while the latter cells undergo several
divisions. 10. The walls of the sporogenous mass of cells become
gelatinized, and the protoplasts arc potentially free in the gelatinous
substance. 11. The spore-mother-cells attain their lobing by a slow
amoeboid change of the protoplast, and in this movement vacuoles seem
to play an important part. The examination of the living sporogenous
tissue of other Jungermanniales verities the occurrence of this phase in
them also. 12. Spores with two nuclei have been found, though this is
not a usual condition.

Oxymitra in North America.* — M. A. Howe gives an account of
Oxymitra paleacea Bisch. (Tesselina pyramidata Dumort.), an hepatic-
known only from the Mediterranean region until it was found in
Balansa's Paraguay collection. Recently it has been gathered in Texas ;
and some of this sample is under cultivation in the New York Botanic
Garden. The Texas plant may, however, prove to be a new species,
distinct from the Mediterranean plant in the larger spores, the position
of the antheridial inflorescence, and the structure of the stomata. The
author discusses, the tangled nomenclature of the generic and specific
names.

The same author f publishes further notes on the Texan Oxymitra
(Tessellina), a supplement to his paper on Oxymitra paleacea or Tessellina
pyramidata.% The latter is a Mediterranean species, and is dioicous,
but the Texan plant on being cultivated is found to be synoicous. The
author therefore gives it the name Oxymitra androyyna sp. n., and
describes its structure.

Marsupella.§ — ■ T. Husnot publishes notes on some species of
Marsupella. 1. The cell-structure of 31. commutata has been figured by
the two experts Massalongo and K. Midler with very discordant results ;
the one showing ovoid, and the other quadrate cells. The cells are in
reality hexagonal, as figured by Husnot, and when otherwise figured by
other authors it is because the outline is taken not from the wall, but
from the cytoplasm which lines it. The cells do not differ from those
of At. FuncJcii, nor do the outline of the leaves, nor the shape of the
lobes afford any trustworthy ground for distinguishing these two species.
Husnot regards 31. commutata and 31 . badensis as no more than forms
of 31. FiiHckii. 2. 31. ustulata and 31. Sprucei are distinguished by the
larger size of the cells in the latter species — a character very variable on
the same plant. Also the acute or obtuse lobes of the involucral leaves
is no constant character. These two species are not distinct.

Bryum tophaceum.|| -L. Trabut discusses the identity of Bryum
tophaceum D. R. & Mont., a nmss gathered at Tiaret in Algiers more
than sixtv years ago, but sterile and almost unknown to brvolouisi-.

* Brvologist, xvii. (1914) pp. 72-5 (1 fig.),
t Brvologist, xvii. (1914) pp. 92-4.
t Brvologist, xvii. (1914) pp. 72-5.
§ Rev. Brvolog., xl. (1913) pp. 76-7.
Rev. Bryolog., xl. (1913) pp. 45-6.

E 2

52 si \1M.\KV 01 CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Recently materia] obtained from the locus classicus, where ii is abundant
:it the margin of streams, enabled V. F. Brotherus to demonstrate thai
it is ;i good species, and is not to be referred to B. gemmiparum, its
nearest ally. From the latter it differs in its more distani leaves, its
laxer reticulation, and by the vanishing of the nerve below the apex of
the leaf.

Hylocomiopsis.* — ,1. Cardot describes the characteristic structure of
Hylocomiopsis ovicarpa, a Japanese species founded by Bescherelle in
1893, and placed in Anomodon. Cardot placed it in Lescursea; and
Brotherus gave it a special subgenus. Trichocaulon. But, inasmuch as it
differs from Lescursea in the marked dimorphism of its leaves, its
branched paraphyllia, and its endostome with narrow, but not filiform
cilia, and also the previous employment of Trichocaulon as a genus of
Asclepiadeae, Cardot proposes for the moss the name of Hylocomiopsis.

Hypnum iusitanicum in Fiiiistere.f — L. Corbiere gives a descrip-
tion of a puzzling moss which he gathered in a remote spot on the coast
of Finistere, and which with difficulty he ascertained to be Hypnum
Iusitanicum Schimp. It belongs to the subgenus Limnobium, and it
forms an addition to the French flora.

Filicicolous Hypopterygium.J — J. Amann discusses a sterile Hypo-
pterygium found growing on the trunk of a tree-fern, Dicksonia antarctica,
in the Jardin d'Acclimatation in Paris in April 1903, and also on
I>. Sellowiana in the Jardin des Plantes. Upon seeing a herbarium
specimen of Hypopt&rygiun BalantiiCM-., he soon found it to be identical
with the Paris plants. H. Balantii was found in the fruiting state by
H. Graef on an old trunk of Balantium antarcticum in the botanic
garden at Charlottenburg, near Berlin. It belongs to the subgenus
Tamariscina Kindb.

Orthotrichum tomentosum.§ — P. Culmann discusses an Orthotrichum
collected on the Bundstock in the Bernese Oberland at an altitude of
about 8000 ft., which he had referred to 0. sardagnanum until he came
upon Glowacki's description of O. tomentosum, which differs only in
having longer peristome teeth. 0. tomentosum is only an extreme or
high mountain form of O.juranum, which possesses the same radical
tomentum, the same velvety calyptra. the same capsular form (16 stria' I,
the same split or even completely divided peristome-teeth, etc. And
O.juranam may be but a synonym of O. abbreviatum, any difference of
length of operculum being relatively unimportant.

Bryophytes of Morocco.|] — L. Corbiere publishes a second paper on
the bryological collections made by Lieut. Mouret in Morocco at Fez

* Kev. Bryolog., xl. (1913) pp. 22-3.
t Rev. Brvolog., xl. (1913) pp. 58-9.
t Rev. Bryolog., xl. (1913) p. 24.
§ Rev. Bryolog., xl. (1913) pp. 49-51.
Rev. Brvolog., xl (1913) pp. 51-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 53

and Ain Cheggag, a calcareous district. The total of llo species is
(•(imposed of S7 mosses and •_>:! liepatics, of which 29 mosses and six
hcpatics iii'e new for the district and one moss is new to science — Pol tin
i Gomphoneurori) Moureti Important notes are appended to some of the
species. The little known Bryum tophaceum is recorded from a new
station ; and in view of stunted specimens of B. gemmiparum gathered
at the same place, Corbiere questions whether these may not he biological
forms of B. tophaceum. Under Riella tieute/i is a note on Trabut's
claims that R. gallica and R. Battandi&ri, and perhaps also R. Notarisii
are to be referred to R. Reuteri.

North American Hepaticae.* — A. W. Evans publishes a fifth
chapter of notes on North American Hepaticae, including seven species
new to the North American flora, namely, Metzgeria uncigera Evans,
Cepha/ozia affinis Lindb., Lejeunea spiniloba Lind. & Gottsche, Taxi-
Ujeunnea oMusangula Evans, Crossotol&jeunnea bermudiana Evans, Leuco-
lejeunea xanthocarpa Evans, Frullania cucullata Lind. & G-ottsche.
Three other species are recorded as with increased range of distribution.
( Ytreful critical notes as to structure, nomenclature, history, etc., are
appended.

Mexican Mosses. f — J. Cardot publishes a tenth article on prelim-
inary diagnoses of Mexican mosses. Though the death of Pringle in
1911 checked one source of collections, yet other travellers in Mexico,
namely Arsene and Nicolas. 0. R. Orcutt, H. Schenk, have sent their
collections for determination. Eleven new species and some varieties
are described and discussed in the present paper.

Thallophyta.

Algae.

(By Mrs. E. S. Gepp.)

North American Fresh-water Algae.} — E. X. Transeau publishes
descriptions of thirteen new species of fresh-water algae collected in
Illinois, namely Zygnema (1 species), Spirogyra (7 species and 5 varieties),
Mougeotia (1 species). (Edogonium (X species). He is engaged in
studying the periodicity of occurrence and reproduction of the local
algal flora.

Batrachospermum.§ — S. R. Price discusses the peculiarities of some
forms of Batraehospermum collected near Cambridge. Some material

* Bryologist, xvii. (1914) pp. 87-92.

t Rev. Bryolog., xl. (1913) pp. 33-40.

X Amer. Journ. Bot., i. (1914) pp. 289-301 (5 pis.).

§ New Phytologist, xiii. (1914) pp. 276-9 (figs.).

54 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

gathered in October L913 consisted of pale normal plants mixed with
dark-coloured plants which were characterized by bearing large [lumbers
of peculiarly contorted and considerably hypertrophied trichogynes. No
brace of fungal or animal parasites could be found to accouni lor tins
hypertrophy. But spermatid were often observed attached to them ; and
carpogonia were frequently developing. In the structure of the axis
and form of the thallus considerable variation was noted. These details
are discussed and dimensions are given. It is probable thai a Beries
of growth forms of Batrachospermum moniliforme composed the material
examined; and that in certain condition, tins species is an extremely
variable one, producing forms which are probably not definite enough
to merit the name of species or even of true varieties. No explanation
of the hypertrophied trichogynes is at present forthcoming.

Scinaia.* — W. A. Setchell publishes the results of his Btudies on the
Scinaia assemblage. After an account of the history of the genus, he
describes the materials, the technique, and the morphology. The
author recognizes three genera in the assemblage, Scinaia, Gloiophlcea,
and a new genus Pseudoscinaia. Each genus and species is described
fully, with the addition of valuable critical notes. A synopsis and a
key to both genera and species is given. A chapter on geographical
distribution concludes the paper. Scinaia seems to be essentially a
northern hemisphere type, since nine of its eleven species are confined
to a position north of the equator, and these represent all the various
types of structure within the genus. Both Gloiophlcea and Pseudo scinaia
have an equal number of species in each hemisphere. Valuable struc-
tural drawings illustrate the work.

Marine Flora of Tatihou and of St.Vaast-la-Hougue.-j-— P. Harlot
publishes an interesting note on some of the marine alga? of the island
of Tatihou and of St. Yaastda-Hougue. The flora has been well worked
by Thuret, Bornet, and others. In the present note the author records
several novelties in the district, Cordylecladia erecta, Phyllophora Trailii,
Erythrotrichia Welwitschii, Ralfsia deusta. On the other hand, several
other species, previously recorded, have disappeared — Codium Bursa,
Enteromorpha aureola. Striaria attenuata. Other species, again, have
disappeared from their previous habitats, to reappear at-others. Two
species are endemic, Stereococcus Malardi Wille, and Polysiphonia
rhunensis Thuret. The author notes the fact that Fwns ceranoides
grows at the mouth of the Saire, and is always hermaphrodite. He
suggests that an observer might do well to study the development of
certain species, with their appearance and disappearance. Padina
Pavonia and Chorda Filum, growing in well-marked spots, would lend
themselves well to such study; and the building up of the simple or
branched filaments of diatoms in brackish water, classified by the older
diatomists as Schizonema, deserves attention.

* Univ. California Publications (Bot.) vi. (1914) pp. 79-152 (7 pis.).
+ Comptes Rendus, clix. (1914) pp. 689-92.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 55

Fungi.
(By A. Lohrain Smith, P.L.S.)

New or Peculiar Zygomycetes.*— R. Thaxter has added three new
genera of moulds to the fungus flora, all of them well-marked and well-
tested. The first, named Blakeslea in honour of Professor Blakeslee,
appeared in a culture of Botrytis Rile///. The larvae attacked by the
Botrytis were found on cow-peas at Gainesville, Florida, and the spores
of the mould may have been lodged on the flowers of the plants and
have become transferred to the body of the insect. The mycelium is
colourless to bright orange ; the sporangia are variable in size, they
are spherical, nodding, or circinate, and solitary at the tips of the
sporangiferous hyphaa. There are, in addition, fertile hyphae that bear
twelve or more sporangiola, or each hypha branches at the tip and
forms swollen heads, which become studded with sporangiola, all typically
three-spored, rarely more. Chlamydospores are also produced.

Thaxter considers that Blakeslea is closely allied to Choanephora,
and he compares several species of that genus with the new fungus.

The second new mould, Dissophora decumbens, was found on dung of
the wood-mouse, in the vicinity of Cambridge, Mass. It is closely allied
to Mortieretta, but is distinguished by the peculiarities of the fertile
hyphae. These arise as branches continually given off from a constantly
advancing main filament. It is at first erect, but soon becomes de-
cumbent. The sporangia are similar to those of Mortieretta.

Haplosporanginm bisporale, the third new genus and species, is also
allied to Mortieretta in the character of the sporangia. There is a felted
layer of mycelium, on segmented portions of which sporangiophores are
radially produced. They are short branchlets, and taper to a point before
bearing the sporangia. The latter are monosporous or bisporous. In
habit the fungus resembles a Gephalosporium, and does not appear to be
rare. A second species of the genus, Eapl (/sporangium decvpims, was
distinguished by the sporangia being nodding and having the walls
roughened by minute folds. There is no record of zygospores having
been formed in the cultures.

Studies of LaboulbeniaceaB.f — Clodomiro 0. Tonghini finishes his
account of this group of Fungi. He describes the various attempts
to make satisfactory microscopic preparations, the best results being
attained by embedding in hard paraffin and by paying particular atten-
tion to the plane at which the sections were cut. He was thus able to
study minutely the different organs — the foot and rhizoidal structures,
the perithecium and the appendices, all of which he describes generally.
more particular descriptions being reserved for the different diagnoses
of genera and species.

* Bot. Gaz., lviii. (1914) pp. 353-66 (4 pis.).
t Malpighia, xxvi. (1913) pp. 477-518 (1 pi.).

56 SUMMARY OK CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In discussing reproduction, lie gives an account, of the male organs
or appendices, and gives the views of himself and others as to the
significance of those structures, some of them being fertile and others

sterile. The latter which surround the spermatic threads may lie con-
sidered as merely protective, or they may have some nutritive function.

The perithecium, or female organ, was also examined, and the author
lays stress <>n the perfection of its development, that being a strong
argument, he concludes, for the sexuality in these Fungi, though the
cytology is not yet perfectly understood. The spores which are pro-
duced within the perithecium are expelled in a gelatinous mass ; they
consist of two unequal cells, and the larger is always the foremost.

Then follows a long discussion on the nutrition of the Laboul-
beniacese : the author concludes that they are all parasites and draw their
nourishment from the host by means of rhizoids, more or less developed.
If sufficient nutriment is not obtained in the epidermis, the rhizoids
penetrate the lower strata.

A synoptic key to the genera is given in the systematic part of the
paper with descriptions of European genera. A list is also drawn up of
the insect, hosts of the Laboulbenise with the parasite peculiar to
each, and a full bibliography of the subject is appended.

Roland Thaxter * lias published an account of LaboulbeniaB parasitic
on beetles belonging to the Chrysomelidae, the result of prolonged
observation of this particular section of the family. He criticizes genera
and species determined by Spegazzini on Argentine beetles. The larger
number of species belong to the genus Ldboulbmia, but two other genera
are also represented by well-marked forms : Dimeromyces contributing
four species from Mexico, the West Indies, and the Straits Settlements ;
while seven species of Coriomyces are included, six of them parasitic on
" flea beetles " from the West Indies and Brazil, the seventh a very
peculiar form from tbe Cameroons and Madagascar. The species de-
scribed were all obtained from tropical regions.

Outbreak of Rust on Winter Grain in Bavaria. f — L. Hiltner
has studied the conditions attending attacks of rust disease on wheat
and rye due to Puccinia glumarum and P. triticina. The ears were
badly attacked, though even in that case the loss to the wheat crop may
not be very great.

There is a general consensus of opinion that rust is favoured by
one-sided nitrogenous manuring, especially with nitrate of soda. It has
been also found that yellow rust was less severe on fields properly
manured, and that thin crops were far more severely attacked than an
even crop covering the ground properly. While unbalanced nitrogenous
manuring favours rusts, dressings of phosphate prevent the attack, and
cereals that follow a green manure crop are also little subject to the
fungus.

The main cause of rust epidemic is the state of the weather : hot

* Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., 1. No. 2 (1914) pp. 17-50.
t Wochenschr. Landw. Ver. Bayern, 1914, No. 25. See also Bull. Agric. Intell.
PL Dis., v. (1914) p. 1091.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 57

days followed by frosts or heavy dews, and then by cool weather, check
the growth of the crops and make them susceptible to the attack of the
fungus.

The writer suggests the advisability of a comparative enquiry through-
out Europe as to the conditions leading to epidemics of rust disease.

Fungi of New South Wales.* — Edwin Cheel writes a short review,
enumerating the more common fungi that occur in New South Wales.
Many species have been discovered and recorded since 18!)2 when Cooke
published the Handbook of Australian Fungi. Many of the forms
common in Australia are equally familiar in our own country ; they have
become naturalized in the pasture lands throughout the State. Among
these. Coprinus comatus, Agaricus eampestris, Lepiota procera, Strophanti
semiglobata, are well known to all mycologists.

Among Polyporacese, the common forms are more peculiarly Austra-
lian. Polyporus eucalyptorum is frequently found on a species of
Eucalyptus known as Stringybark, the sporophore is whitish and soft,
the mycelium occurs in thin whitish sheets wrapped round the heart-
wood of the tree.

Polystictus cinnabarina is very common on fence-rails and fallen
branches; Polyporus Mylittse is occasionally found. Several Boleti are
mentioned, and St&reum lobatum, a common species in warm countries.

During the rainy weather of January and February a number of
peculiar G-asteromycetes are met with : Aseroe rubra, which resembles a
sea-anemone, Glathrus cibarius, called the " Lace-ball Fungus," and
Lysurus australiensis, or " Deadman's Finger."

Microfungi are also very abundant, either native or introduced.
Uredineae, Ustilagiueas, and Ascomycetes are all well represented.
Entomogenous fungi are not uncommon ; species of Cordyceps found on
caterpillars and minute forms belonging to the genera Myriangium and
Microcera which attack scale-insects, and may have considerable economic
importance.

('heel also adds a note on Mycetozoa, which are abundant.

Fungi in South Australia. f — T. G. B. Osborne has given a sum-
mary of the fungoid products of South Australia. They have been
much less worked than those of some of the other States ; there are only
about 12 p.c. known of the total number of species recorded for the
•Commonwealth. Among the more remarkable fungi occurring in the
State are the luminous Pleurotus candescens, which grows on dead
Eucalyptus stumps, and Poly/inn/* Mylittse, which" forms bulky sclerotia.

Another curious fungus belonging to the Polyporeas has been de-
scribed under the uame of Laccocephalum basilapiloides. It is found in
mallee country, and the mycelium forms dense accretions of the sandy
soil at the base of the fungus stipe. The stony masses are roughly egg-
shaped, and measure as much as 12 cm. long and 8 '5 cm. thick.

* Brit. Assoc. Handbk. New South Wales, 1914, pp. 453-7.
t Brit. Assoc. Handbk. South Australia, 1914, pp. 22-3.

58 SUMMARY OF CURRKNT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Suspended Vitality in Fungi.* — Buller and Cameron have ex-
perimented with the fruiting bodies of some of the larger fungi, to
test the length of time they can retain their power of growth after being
dried up. Dsedalea bfcolor was kept in the dark, exposed to ordinary
room temperatures for at least seven years and a half, and retained
vitality. Sehizophyllum commune revived after a period of rive years and
seven months. Further experiments were made by exposing the fungi
tn phosphorus pentoxide and to the temperature of liquid air. In the
latter case they were kept at the low temperature for three weeks, and
still retained their vitality.

Fungus Disease of Plants. t — A disease on Pepper due to Colleto-
trichum nigrum is described by C". K. Bancroft. It appeared first in the
form of spots at the apex or on the sides of the fruit. Concentric circles
then form round the point of infection, and the whole fruit may become
diseased and fall off. The fungus may also spread down the stem. The
disease spread so fast that some plants lost all their yield. The treat-
ment adopted was to cut hack the infected plants and spray repeatedly
with Bordeaux mixture.

C. K. Bancroft^ also writes about a disease affecting Sisal Hemp
caused by Golletotrichum Agaves in British Guiana. The parasite so far
as is known has only attacked plants at some distance from the coast.
The fungus has been cultured and again reproduced on the host, but
only when the latter was injured, thus confirming the conclusion that it
was a wound parasite.

The same writer § describes the action of Mtirasmius Sacchari, the
•' new disease " or " dry disease " on Sugar-cane, first observed in the
colony in 1907. The report is mainly concerned with the means
employed to get rid of the parasite. More resistant varieties of the
sugar-cane have been generally planted with good effect.

P. A. Saccardo and B. Peyronel|| describe two new species of fungi
found on Tobacco Seed Beds. They are Glozopeziza turricola, a Disco-
mycete which looks like brick-red dots on the soil and appears early in
the pan on the warm protected beds. It develops in patches and forms
a crust that hinders the development of the germinating tobacco seeds.
The second species Hyalopas geophilus is a white mould (Mucedinaeeae),
and develops on the same places as the Glozopeziza. Sterilization of the
soil killed off both fungi.

Fungus Diseases in South Australia.1I — T. G. B. Osborn has
prepared a short general account of fungus diseases in the southern

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vi. (1912) pp. 73-8. See also Bot. Gaz.,lviii. (1914)
pp. 375-6.

t Journ. Board Agric. Brit. Guiana, vii. No. 3 (1914) pp. 139-40. See also
Bull. Agric. Intell. PL Dis., v. (1914) p. 1092.

% Journ. Board Agric. Brit. Guiana, vii. No. 4 (1914) pp. 181-2. See also
Bull. Agric. Intell. PI Dis., v. (1914) pp. 1246-7.

§ Journ. Board Agric. Brit. Guiana, vii. No. 4 (1914) pp. 183-7.

|| Boll. tec. coll. tabacchi, Salerno, xiii. No. 1 (1911) pp. 3-6 (1 pi.). See also
Bull. Agric. Intell. PI. Dis., v. No. 9 (1914) pp. 1247-8.

f Brit. Assoc. Handbk. South Australia, 1914, pp. 24-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 59

state of Australia. He notes two prevalent wheat-infecting rusts—
Puccinia graminis, or black rust which occasionally does very serious
damage, though the general dry weather which precedes harvest lessens
the danger of serious mischief ; and another common rust, P. triticina,
which only attacks the leaves of the wheat and is not of much economic
importance.

Among smuts Urocystis Tritici is one of the most important. Infec-
tion of the host-plant occurs at the seedling stage before the wheat
appears above ground ; infected plants rarely produce grain.

Ophiobolus graminis or " take-all," a pyrenomycetous fungus, also
gives serious trouble in wheat-fields. The seedling roots are attacked
and the fungus spreads upwards through the plant tissues. Barley is
also severely attacked ; oats less frequently.

Fruit-trees suffer from Exoascus deformans, and from various shot-
hole fungi. These may spread from the leaves to the fruit and cause a
disfigured stunted appearance from the scabbed areas of the fungus
growth.

Potatoes are the only root-crop of importance, and since 1909
PhytopMhora infestans has been recorded. Owing, however, to the dry
condition, it rarely causes the rot of haulms and leaves so common in
Britain. Sclerotia of Rhizoctonia are common, but though tubers are
frequently injured, the cause of injury is more probably Oospora scabies,
which does so much harm in the United States. Growers are hampered
by the small area of ground suitable for potato cultivation, so that it is
difficult to change the crop.

&

Lichens.

(By A. Lobeain Smith, P.L.S.)

British Wandering Lichen.* — Robert Paulson and Somerville
Hastings describe the origin and development of an unattached lichen
from the Downs near Seaford, but confined to a small area of about eight
acres. The specimens correspond to Parmelia revoluta var. concentrica
Cromb. At first it was suggested that the lichen may have commenced
life on some tree and been blown on to the downs. There were no tret-
bearing lichens anywhere near, and the problem was at last solved by the
discovery of some flints with Parmelia revoluta growing on them and
gradually becoming panniform. The lichens in time become dislodged
from the flints. They are very dry and are probably occasionally rolled
over by a strong wind. Some of them attain an almost spherical contour,
being made up of concentric layers of lacinia3. They are easily broken,
by the trampling of sheep, etc., and each broken portion may develop
anew. Erratic lichens occur elsewhere, but this is the only British lichen
with this peculiar habit of growth.

* Knowledge, xxxvii. (1914) pp. 319-23 (9 figs.).

60 SUMMARY Ml CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Lichens of New South Wales.* -Edwin Cheel has given a shorl
sketch of the lichen flora of the Siate. more particularly in bhe Sydney
district. Owing to the crumbling nature of the sandstone rocks, the
neighbourhood of Sydney is not rich in quantity, but a considerable

number of species are represented. Many <>i' them arc cosmopolitan,
others arc peculiar to Australia. He enumerates the brilliantly coloured
Xanthoria parietina, Thelost-histts r/irysop/it/tahna, and Kunzea corifolia,
which grow on trees along the foreshores of the harbour. On the
ground of the Wanamatta Shale series he records Heterodea Muelleri,
Glathrina aggregate/,, and Oladonia difissia\ and on logs. Thysanothecium
hyalinum, which is peculiar to Australia. In the Blue Mountains he
enumerates several familar species, such as Rhizocarpon geographicum and
PelUgera polydactyla.

Lichen Flora of the Erzgebirge.t — E. Bachmann continues his
held studies of Lichens. He gives a topographical and geological
account of the district he worked through — the mining district of
Saxony. The two principal types of rock are quartz-porphyry and
basalt. There are occasional outcrops of lime, but- these are grown over
by shrubs and trees which give a dense shade so that almost the onlv
rock lichen of that formation was Lecanora erysibe

The woods of the district are even more uniform than the geological
formation, consisting near Altenburg of pine wood with very scanty
lichen growth. In districts where mountain ash and hazel grew he
found Arthonia radiata and Arthopyrenia puncUformis.

On the Kahleberg the yellow species of Rhizocarpon were abundant,
and in addition Lecidia panther ina, L. xudetica, L. lygsea, and species of
< 'ladonia. Lists are given of lichens common to the district but absent
from the district of Bittersgrun previously worked through by the
author.

A comparison is also made with the lichen flora of the island of
Bugen. He notes that the lichens of the Erzgebirge are practically the
same whether they grow on the tops or sides of the rocks, whilst on the
island the upper surfaces are either barren or covered with Lecanora
saxicola, Xanthoria lyclmea, and Candettaria vitellina.

Bachmann was able to establish a difference between the lichens of
acid and basic rocks ; acid rocks containing 70 p.c. and more of oxide
of silica such as quartz and granite-porphyry ; and basic rocks, diabase
and basalt, not reaching 50 p.c. He found that Rhizocarpon geographi-
cum was the most frequent lichen of porphyry, while on basalt there
were only small scattered patches. Pertusaria corallina was common
on granite and on porphyry, but was not found on greenstone or basalt.
Pertusaria lactea f. cinerescens, Diploschistes scruposus and I>. bryophilus
alone- with Buellia leptocline prefer the basic substratum. Borphyry
and basalt are alike physically except for a difference in colour and
therefore in power of radiation, but the chief difference lies in the
chemical constitution. A list of 19H species is given with their habitats
and localities.

* Brit. Assoc. New South Wales, 1914, pp. 457-8.
t Hedwigia, lv. (1914) pp. 157-82.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 61

American Species of Ramalina.* -The two final parts (vii and
vur), on the genus Ramalina, have been recently published by Beber
Howe. They comprise diagnoses of a number of species, with critical
notes and an exhaustive review of the nomenclature. A number of
changes have been made in the names. R. usneoides becoming R. /'sun/.
an older Linnean designation. In the latter number is printed a key to
the genns. Howe has left R. thrausta in the genus Alectoria, where it
was placed by Acharius; the filamentous cortex is AUetorian in cha-
racter, and fruits are unknown.

Noteworthy Lichens from Maine. f — In this concluding paper,
Gr. K. Merril records a number of species of the genus Lecanora, some of
them new records for America. With reference to L. subfusca var.
campestris, he gives the habitat not only on rocks near the sea. but also
on the base of trunks of trees, and on decorticated wood at times in-
undated. L.rugosa he found exactly as described by Crombie, and con-
siders it a good species, though it is frequently regarded as merely a
variety of L. subfusca. L. Isevata he found on rocks in the bed of a
stream. Several Pertusarias are also included in the list, all new to
America.

Nomenclature of the Genus Usnea.J — R- Heber Howe has worked
out the recorded history of the genus and species, based on the Linnean
types and descriptions. Usnea florida represents the plant long known
as such. Two good specimens are mounted on one sheet and labelled
in Linnaeus' handwriting. The form hirta is also preserved in the
herbarium at Burlington House, but it is atypical. Regarding Usiirn
plicata, Howe says there is uo true type-specimen, so he falls back on the
description by Liunajus, which is based on a plate of Dillenius. It is a
coarse pendulous species"; determined later by Shaerer as / '. ceratina,
which name was adopted by Crombie. The true U. ceratina of Acharius
is a prostrate and entirely asperate species. The species name D. bar-
bata has also been revived, and is the true name for our U . dasypoga.
The North American Linnean species therefore are : — U. florida Web.,
U. plicata Web., U. barbata Web., and U. articulata Hoffm.

Schizophyta.
Schizomycetes.

Endemic Adenomycosis.^ — E. Diaz describesa hitherto unrecognized
disease which has been met with in the mining provinces of Brazil.
The disease commences with the painless enlargement of a cervical
lymphatic gland, the condition rapidly spreading to all the glands in the
anterior triangle of the neck on both sides. Some months later fever

* Brvologist, xvii. (1914) pp. 65-8, 82-7(2 pis.).

t Bryologist, xvii. (1914) pp. 76-9.

t Bull. Torrev Bot. Club, xil. (1914) pp. 373-9 (6 pis.).

§ Brazil Medico, xxviii. (1914) pp. 133, l-l. 153.

62 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and cachexia supervene, and thepatienl diesaftcra lapse of i wo or three
years. From the expressed juice of the affected glands, a spore-bearing
mould has been cultivated, which is pathogenic to laboratory animals.
On Sabouraud's maltose medium a growth of small prominent yellow
colonies becomes visible after some three days, and after 20 days a white
filamentous mass of spore-bearing hyplne develops. On maltose-agar,
after two days, small points appear, pale brown in colour with a smooth
surface and sharp edges. After 45 days aerial hyphae become visible, at
first white, but afterwards turning slightly yellow. The spores, from
2/j. to 3/x, in length, are arranged in clusters or chains. The hyphae
sometimes form bundles as much as 1 cm. in length by 1 mm. in dia-
meter. The name of " Adenomycosis druzi" is proposed for this new
mould, as the discoverer cannot find any previous description of a similar
organism in the literature.

Report on Gas Gangrene.* — Sir A. Bowlbyand S. Rowland briefly
record their observations on the spreading gangrene which has occurred
among the wounded of all the armies now in France. Bacteriological
examinations were carried out by Rowland at the Mobile Field Labor-
atory, and a bacillus was isolated from a typical case for examination.
A culture inoculated into a guinea-pig killed the animal in eighteen
hours. Post-mortem there was found a gangrenous cellulitis from which
the infecting organism was recovered in pure culture. A second pig was
inoculated and sent to the Lister Institute for further investigation.
The animal arrived safely and died shortly afterwards.

The view is held that this organism is identical with one that was
for some time confused with that of malignant oedema, known as the
bacillus of Ghon and Sach. A sample of earth from a trench was also
examined. The earth was shaken up with a little water and then
inoculated into a guinea-pig. . The animal, which died in eighteen
hours, also presented the features of a gangrenous cellulitis, and was found
to be infected throughout with a spore-bearing anaerobe belonging
to the same group. It is concluded that the gangrene found among
our wounded soldiers is directly due to infection introduced at the
time of the wound, and this is especially likely to occur if muddy
clothing has been carried in by the projectile, or if earth has been
carried in by the explosion.

Thermoprecipitin Method in Diagnosis of Plague Cadavers.!
Charlotte E. Warner has applied the thermoprecipitin method of Ascoli
to the diagnosis of plague in rat cadavers with considerable success.
The technique follows the lines laid down by Ascoli in his investigations
with regard to anthrax. The extract prepared from plague-infected
material is placed in contact with a layer of immune plague serum, a
positive reaction being indicated by the appearance of a whitish ring at
the surface of contact. The reaction is specific, and if carried out with
suitable controls, the occurrence of a marked positive reaction is absolute
proof that the organ used for the preparation of the extract was infected

* Brit. Med. Journ., 1914, No. 2813, pp. 911-12.
f Journ. Hygiene, xiv. (1914) pp. 360-70.

ZOOLOGY .VXD BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 63

with Bacillus pestis. A negative reaction is. however, of no value, as
the organ used may have been pest-infected, but the number of bacilli

present may not have been sufficient for the purposes of t he t est . While
in no way replacing the recognized methods of plague diagnosis, the
thermoprecipitin reaction " by reason of its speed, simplicity, indepen-
dence of climatic conditions, or putrefaction in the cadaver, and avail-
ability in addition to the usual bacteriological methods, is a valuable
supplement to them."

Human and Rat Leprosy.* — A. Philibert directs attention to the
striking resemblance of human to rat leprosy with regard to geographical
distribution, clinical features, pathology, and bacteriology, all of which
point to the closest relationship or actual identity of the Hansen bacillus
with the bacillus of Stefansky. Philibert believes that the rat strain
has now lost its power of infecting human beings, and that consequently
rats suffering from rat leprosy cannot be considered as dangerous to
humans.

New Pathogenic Oospora (Oospora bronchialis).t — A. Sartory
and Ph. Lasseur have isolated a new species of Oospora from the expec-
toration of a patient detained at the military hospital at Nancy about
the time of the outbreak of the European. War. He was suffering from
cough and breathlessness accompanied by rapid emaciation. The fungus
was isolated from small yellowish-white masses which were found sus-
pended in the sputum. After two months' treatment with potassium
iodide the patient was on the high road to recovery.

The parasite was isolated by plating out on maltose-gelatin-agar.
An exact idea of the structure of the organism can be obtained by
cultivating it in a hanging drop in maltose broth at 37° C. After
24 hours the mycelial filaments become elongated up to 2 mm. in
length. These filaments, which are fixed and are entangled one with
the other, possess regular lateral ramifications. These ramifications
appear first on the sides of the principal filaments in the form of little
nipples with rounded-off extremities. The conidia come into being at
the free extremity of a filament, which becomes elongated and swells
itself so as to constitute a little club separated from the parent filament
by a partition. This phenomenon keeps on repeating itself, and results
in a series of conidia being formed one behind the other, so as to form
a little chain, the free conidia having the form of little barrels. Th
chains are very fragile, and are easily broken or detached. The number
of the conidia varies from 15 to about 20, and the largest measure some
• 6 /jl. These characters are those of a fungus of the genus Oospora
Wallroth. The organism does not grow on broth, Raulin's medium,
carrot, potato, banana, etc., but develops on the addition of maltose to
the various media. The parasite is pathogenic for the guinea-pie; and
rabbit, which animals reveal, post mortem, a bilateral purulent pleurisy.
the lungs being capped with a false membrane. The parasite reseinl>le-v

* Progres Mrdical, xlii. (1914) pp. 210-12.
t Cornptes Rendus, olix. (1914) pp. 758-9.

64 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES liKLATING TO

the Oospora pulmonalis of Roger and Sartory, but the biological and
morphological differences appear to he such as bo warranl the creation
of a new gpecies, to which the name Oospora bronchialis has been given.

Bacterial Flora of Wounds.* — Doyen and Yamanouchi present a
prelimary note on their observations with regard to bacterial infecl
on the held of battle. Their investigations have been made principally
in relation to "gas gangrene," and they state thai they have invariably
found the Bacillus per/ringens associated with this condition. With
regard to treatment, their observations show that, provided the septic
focus receives early attention, excellent results may be obtained by the
application of compresses of " solution chloruree de liqueur de Labar-
raque " diluted to 10 or 20 parts per 1000.

Bacterial Researches on Gas Gangrene. | M. Weinberg states
that in all the cases of gas gangrene that he has examined among the
British troops at the front, he has found a large Gram-staining bacillus,
which answers in all its morphological and biological characters to
Bacillus Welchii (B. per/ringens). This anaerobic organism was always
found to be associated with aerobes (or facultative anaerobes;, such as
B. proteus, staphylococci, and streptococci. A common combination was
found to be B. per/ringens, diplococci, and B. proteus. Although the
author admits that one is not able to state that all cases of gas gangrene
are due to the same organisms, yet he is of opinion that B. per/ringens
plays a very important part in the etiology of this condition.

Ferment contained in Water. J — E. Voisenet has previously described

an organism {Barillas amaracrylas) present in hitter wines, which, by
the action of an enzyme contained in its substance, is able to transform
glycerin into acrolein. Working with " Dijon water * inoculated into
a glycerinated mineral medium, he has produced abundant cultures of ;i
bacillus which presents the morphological characters of />. amaracrylis,
and. like it, is capable of dehydrating glycerin. The biochemical pro-
perties of the two organisms are, moreover, identical, and it is more than
probable that we are here dealing with one and the same bacillus.
Further researches with regard to the pathogenicity of the new strain
are being proceeded with.

Bacillus bifidus in the Intestinal Cahal.§ — C. A. Kling endorses
the conclusions of Tissier with regard to the bactericidal action of
Bacillus Ufidus. The experiments were conducted with emulsions of
B. coli, B. I art is aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris, and Staphylococcus a arras.
and in every case the markedly inhibitory action of B. bifidis was mani-
fested. The inhibitory substance was found to be present in the culture
fluid, and was recoverable after filtration through a Chamberland filter ;
and also after dialysis. It was ascertained to be thermostable, and to ■

* C R. Soc Biol. Paris, lxxvii. (1914) pp. 503-4.

t C.R, Soc. Biol. Paris, lxxvii. (191 1) pp. 506 3.

% Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxviii. (1914) pp. 807 L8.

8 Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xxviii. (1914) pp. 797-806.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 1)5

readily neutralized by the addition of alkali nes. The inhibitory effect
is doubtless produced by the formation of acids (lactic and acetic) by
the bacillus from the sugar in the medium in which it is grown. B.
bifidus is generally found in the intestinal tract of breast-fed infants,
and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the acid reaction of the fasces
of such infants is due to the activities of this organism, which, therefore,
plays an important part in the protection of the intestine against the
harmful influence of pathogenic micro-organisms.

Sulphur Bacteria.* — G. A. Nadson describes a number of interesting
sulphur bacteria from brackish water in the Gulf of Finland. Two of
the forms described are peculiar, from the fact that the cells contain in
addition to stored sulphur a substance which readily decomposes into
oxalic acid. These bacteria live in badly aerated mud, and by increasing
the oxygen supply the oxalite-like substance was found to increase and
the accumulation of sulphur to diminish, and vice-versa. A remarkable
new genus of sulphur bacteria called Thiosphasrella was discovered which
contained in its cells large quantities of a starch -like substance. The
other forms described are new species of the genera Achromatium and
Thiophysa.

Spirochetosis of the Bovine Hemoglobinuria of Chile.f — J.
Blier, after describing the chief symptoms, states that at the outset of
the disease an organism can be found. It is longer than most known
spirochai'tes, sometimes exceeding 60 /x and then being 1 /x thick. When
shorter it is swollen in the middle. Sometimes the undulations are of
regular amplitude, but this is not invariable. One extremity of the
body is thinner than the other, and the organism takes a uniform Giemsa
staining. Stained with Borrel's eosin-blue, bright red granules become
apparent. An excellent photograph revealed a flagellum at each end.

* Bull. Imperial Bot. Gard. Petrograd, siii. No. 4. See also Nature, xciv. (1914)
p. 458.

t Cornptes Rendus, clix. (1914) pp. 815-1

Feb. 17th, 191(

66

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, etc.*
(1) Stands.

Small Comparator.! — This instrument (fig. 2), made by the Cam-
bridge Scientific Instrument Co., consists of a cylindrical steel tube about
.")()( i mm. long which is supported in geometric bearings on a rigid
frame, and can be fed backwards and forwards by means of a micrometer
screw of 1 mm. pitch. The micrometer head is divided in 100 parts
and readings can be estimated to 0"001 mm. The screw has a pitch of

Pig. 2.

1 mm. and is free from backlash. Two Microscopes with achromatic
objectives are clamped to the steel tube. They are fitted with the Lucas
slow motion focusing mechanism which gives a very smooth movement
and is also free from backlash. The scale under observation is sup-
ported on the base of the instruments and scales of any length may be
checked.

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands : (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3)
Illuminating and other Apparatus ; (4) Photomicrography ; (5) Microscopical
Optics and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

t Cambridge Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, BTl .

67

Fig. 3.

F 2

liS SIWIMAKY OF CURRENT KKSKA l,'< 'II l,s RELATING TO

The method of working is as follows. Assuming that it is desired to
cheek a scale at intervals of 100 mm., the Microscopes are focused on a
standard scale and the interval between them is adjusted by hand to be
as nearly as possible 100 mm. Experience shows that this interval can
be adjusted correctly to within iii mm. To determine the exact
interval, the cross wires in the left-hand Microscope are brought into
coincidence with one of the marks defining the standard scale and the
reading of the micrometer head noted. The head is then turned till the
cross wires of the right-hand Microscope arc on the other mark, and
the reading again taken. The exact distance between the points on
which the Microscopes are focused is thus known. The calibration of
a scale may be tested by a series of observations made in a similar manner.

If desired a micrometer eye-piece with head divided to 0*01 mm.
can be fitted to one of the Microscopes. It will be found that this very
much facilitates quick adjustment of the instrument.

New Spencer Portable Microscope.* — This instrument, which is
listed as No. 60 in the maker's catalogue, is shown in tig. 3. It is

Fig. 4.

enclosed in a metal case (fig. 4), the two halves of which are hinged
together. Each half is a single thin casting of magnalium. a light alloy
of aluminium which is resistant to weather conditions. The wall is
strengthened around the edge by a narrow band of increased thickness
which is sufficient for holding a felt buffer to make the case dust-tight.
This buffer is burnished into the metal. No glue is used to fasten any
of the pads. The outside is finished in an imitation leather enamel,
which is baked on and is permanent. This, together with the rounded

* Spencer Microscopes and Accessories, 1914, p. 54. Buffalo, New York, and
8°> Wigmore Street, London, W.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

69

edges and corners, makes an exceptionally neat case, 8| in. by 6 A in.
by 8f in. in its extreme over-all dimensions. The Microscope is rigidly
held in place in the case by two strong pins, which fit into depressions m
the arm. To prepare for using, it is only necessary to lift the instru-
ment from the case, turn the legs to position and pull the draw-tube.
Tin- instrument goes into the case with the objectives in position on the
•nose-piece. Caps are furnished for protecting the objectives if desired.
The instrument, a simple side fine adjustment, each division of the

Fig. 5.

graduated button of which represents a movement of one micron in the
body tube. Fig. 5 shows the open case, the mechanical stage and
camera-lucida being in position.

(4) Photomicrography.

Freedom from Vibration for Photomicrography.* — The apparatus
described below has been in use in the Office of Soil Bacteriology
Investigations for many years, and has made it possible, says K. F.
Eellerman, to prepare photomicrographs of unusually high character,
requiring sometimes as much as six minutes exposure, even though tram
cars and heavy wagons pass the doorway of our building at frequent
intervals. The stand consists essentially of a heavy stone slab A, upon
which is mounted the photomicrographic equipment and the electric
lighting apparatus. Immediately below this stone and supporting it is

Dep. Agric. U.S.A., Bureau of Plaut Industry.

70 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a layer of felt B, approximately 2 in. in thickness. Tins felt layer is in
effect a shock absorber. The felt in turn is supported by the fiat top of
the movable table C. This table may be equipped with cupboards and
drawers giving the necessary space for the special equipment for the
various kinds of photomicrography which may be attempted. At the
corners of the table near the wheels, where castors are placed, there are
also placed spring checks D, which can be adjusted to press against the
floor and tlius prevent any undue freedom of movement of the table
while it is in use. Examples of six-minute exposures, at 1000 magnifi-
cation, are extremely fine.

; (5") Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Optic Projection by S. H. and H. P. Gage.* — This book is a very
complete and up to date exposition of its subject. The authors' intention
is not only to give an explanation of the principles underlying the art,
but to give such simple and explicit directions that any intelligent
person can succeed in all the fields of projection. At the same time
attention is devoted to the physiological principles of vision, so that the
investigator in novel or special applications of projection may have a
clear idea of the methods which must be adopted to obtain success.
While impressed with the general excellence of the apparatus supplied
by many different makers, the authors point out certain general defects,
among them being an uncertainty as to the right and the wrong way of
using the auxiliary parts of an apparatus. The authors think that
manufacturers should give attention to this point, and should construct
their apparatus so that it can be used in only one, and that the right
way. Thus, to take a simple example, the condenser is usually so
mounted that it may be used with either end facing the arc lamp : this
ought to be impossible, and could be easily obviated. This idea oi
rendering the apparatus as far as possible " fool-proof " is a strong
feature of the book. Every chapter is followed by a summary of useful
instructions, entitled " Do " and " Bo not," with the intention of re-
ducing the difficulties of operators.

The work is divided into fifteen chapters, the first six of which deal
with the magic-lantern as operated with different kinds of light (direct
current, alternating current, house electric light, lime-light, ordinary
lamps, and sunlight). Other chapters deal with projection of opaque
objects, lantern slides, the projection Microscope, drawing and photo-
graphy with projection apparatus, moving pictures. Chapter xn is a
useful discussion of projection rooms and screens. Chapters xiii and x i v
treat of electric currents and their measurements, and optics of pro-
jection ; and Chapter xv discusses normal and defective vision. An
appendix gives a brief historical statement on the origin and development
of projection apparatus. There are modern and historical bibliographies
and a list of manufacturers of projection apparatus.

* Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, New York (1914) 731 pp. (413 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Batsch's "Testacea Arenulae," 1791.*— E. Heron-Allen informs
us that by the courtesy of F. W. Millet, F.R.M.S., he has been informed
of yet another copy of this ultra-rare work, which is in that gentleman's
possession. As this newly recorded copy is said to contain both the
Latin and German versions of the text, it would also appear to be unique,
for no such edition has ever been recorded before.

Apparatus and Practical Methods for the Microscopical Examina-
tion of Crystalline Bodies.f — This work is divided into five parts and
is published as a supplement to Mikrokosmos. Its object is to deal ex-
haustively with the subject of micro-crystallography in such a manner as
to meet the needs of amateurs and of all classes of investigators. The
first three parts are due to C. Leiss, and deal with penological Micro-
scopes and the various instruments and methods in general use for
preparing objects. The last part contains two sub-parts and is by
H. Schneiderhohn : it sets forth the methods of investigation in
systematic order. The titles of the parts are : —

1. Structure and manipulation of the mineralogical Microscope and
its auxiliary apparatus (32 pp.).

'1. Management of rock-preparations and their sections (5 pp.)

3. Apparatus for determination of optical constants of crystalline
bodies (4 pp).

4. Determination of physical constants of crystalline bodies by means
of the polarizing Microscope : — (a) transparent objects (4G pp.) ;
(b) opaque objects (5 pp.). The work also contains a bibliography of
modern authorities.

B. Technique 4
(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes.

Pipette Method in the Isolation of Single Micro-organisms.§
In this communication, M. A. Barber has collected together the various
descriptions which have appeared from time to time regarding the
technique and methods of application of the pipette method of isolating
single micro-organisms under microscopical control. He has also

* See this Journal, 1914, p. 526.

t Apparate und Arbeitsmethoden zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung Kristal-
lisierter-Korper. C. Leiss and H. Schneiderhohn. Stuttgart: "Mikrokosmos"
(1914) 94 pp. (115 figs.).

X This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses ; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Embedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, etc. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

§ Philippine Journ. Sci., ix. (1914) pp. 307-60 (19 figs, and 2 pis).

72

srUMAKY OF ( '( l.-KKN I RESEARCHES RELATING To

appended considerable information not before published regarding the
various applications of the method. The technique lias a very wide

application, not only in bacteriology but also in all departments of
microscopy. Single bacteria, yeast-cells, spores of fungi, algae, protozoa,
Mood-corpuscles, and other histological elements may be isolated with
comparative ease. Isolated organisms may lie cultivated /// situ, trans-
ferred to any medium, or inoculated into animals Injections may be
made into the vacuoles or protoplasm of living cells. Microscopical

Fig. 6. — Microscope with two pipette-holders, each containing a
pipette attached to the stage by rneaus of metal plates. Seen
from the back : A a three-movement, and B a two-movement
holder ; tf, adjustment 'governed by screen s" for moving the
pipette to and from the observer.

objects may be dissected or stained under the highest powers of the
Microscope.

The principle of the method consists in the separation of a single
organism by means of a very finely- pointed capillary glass pipette. The
isolation is carried out in hanging drops on the under-side of a large
cover-glass, which is placed over a moist chamber. The organism to be
isolated is touched with the tip of the pipette, into which it enters by
capillarity ; a sterile portion of the cover-glass is brought over the tip
and the organism is discharged on to it by pressure through a rubber
tube held in the mouth of the operator. The whole process is carried
out under the Microscope, with the highest powers, if desired.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

73

Various methods of procedure are applicable. The most convenient
is that in which the pipette is manipulated by means of a special
holder, clamped directly on to the Microscope stage, or to a metal plate
fastened beneath. The best form of pipette-bolder possesses movements
in three directions of space as shown in rig. 6. The figure also shows
the other portions of the apparatus in position. The pipette is held in
a groove g in the side of the adjustment rl and is fixed by t),e set
screw ss.

The moist chamber (fig. 7) is made by fastening strips of glass to a
slide with Canada balsam or any convenient cement, an additional strip
being cemented to the slide at the open end s, which serves to strengthen
the apparatus and makes it capable of holding water. A convenient
size for the moist chamber is 7»> mm. long, 35 wide, and 28 high. The
moist chamber is lined on the sides and end with filter paper, p, in order
to furnish a large moist surface. The cover glass, which should be of
a sufficient size to seal well over the sides of the chamber, needs .special
care in its preparation. • After careful cleaning, a little vaseline is
applied, the excess of vaseline is removed with soap and water, and the

Fig. 7. — Isolating chamber, p, lining of blotting-paper ;
s, glass strip for retaining water in bottom.

cover-glass, after warming, is rubbed with a dry clean cloth. The trace
of vaseline left behind is sufficient to prevent the hanging drops from
running together. Before use the cover-glass is sterilized, and a series
of drops of sterile broth are placed on the under side.

The making of the capillary pipette presents some difficulties, and
experience is needed to obtain the best results. An ordinary capillary
pipette (0'5 mm. external diameter) is first drawn out in the Bunsen
flame. The shank of the pipette is held in the right hand, and with a
pair of fine forceps held in the left hand, the capillary is grasped at about
5 cm. from the shank, both hands resting on the table. The point of
the capillary next to the forceps is then held over the flame of a micro-
burner (fig. 8). When the glass begins to soften it is lifted slowly
from the flame and pulled so as to draw the capillary out into a very fine
point. The end of the capillary is then turned at right angles. The
pipette is placed in position in the pipette holder, and the tip brought
into view, and into the centre of the field of the Microscope by means of
the adjustments. The tip is then lowered. One of the drops of sterile
broth is then brought into the field, the objective is lowered until the
tip comes into view and the objective and tip are then raised together
until the tip comes into contact with the cover-glass just outside the
drop. The point of the capillary is then broken against the cover-glass,

74

sr.MMAK'Y <)K CURRENT RESEARCHES RKLATIM; TO

and a little broth taken up by suction on the rubber tube held in the
mouth. If the point is sufficiently patent, a little drop should be easily
blown out on to the cover-glass. The size of the opening will vary with
the nature of the work in 'contemplation. If too large, say over
15 micrometers, the difficulty of isolation will increase ; if too small, say
less than a micrometer, it will be difficult to blow out broth or introduce
the larger bacteria. Bacteria can be isolated by means of the high
powers. The tip is brought into the drop near the bacterium and is then
lowered, the bacterium usually entering the pipette by capillarity. It
can be isolated on a sterile part of the cover-glass. In using cover-glass

Fig. 8. — Method of making the capillary pipette.
b, microburner.

cultivations, broth, liquefied gelatin, or any fluid or semi-fluid, may be
employed. The media may be placed in readiness on the slide previous
to isolation.

The isolated organisms may be inoculated into animals, subcutane-
ously, intravenously, or intraperitoneally. The organism is washed well
back into the pipette with broth or salt solution. The end of the
pipette (which should be obliquely fractured) is inserted into the tissue
of the animal and the organism blown out. Large animals may be
inoculated through the mucous membrane of the mouth.

In the latter portion of his paper Barber gives full details of the
various special applications of the pipette method that he has employed

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, KTC

I-

A >l-s

^ (D
03 ^j

^ ..o j

3 ffl m O

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o3

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7Q SUMMARY OF CURRENT EBSEA.RCB Ks RELATING TO

from time bo time. These include the carrying out of serological tests,
experiments on chemiotaxis, dissections and inoculations into living cells.
A special form of pipette is needed for the latter purpose. Either hard
or soft glass may be used. A piece of tubing about 35 cm. long is bent
at one end into the form shown in fig. i). The tip of the convoluted
portion is drawn out into a coarse capillary, inserted into a cup of
mercury, and rilled by exhausting the tube at the straight end, the tube
being heated before filling ; the aperture is then sealed off. The end of
the arm is next drawn out into a straight capillary about 8 cm. long and
0'5 to 0"8 mm. external diameter. The pipette is then filled with
mercury to the tip of the capillary, the loop being gently heated and the
tip immersed in mercury. The mercury in the capillary is then retracted
by immersing the loop in ice water, and the pipette point made in the
micro-burner in the usual way. A special form of apparatus is needed
for the regulation of the temperature of the loop (see fig. 9). The
cup c, containing ice and water, can be raised or lowered by means of
ratchet and pinion, or swung aside. The inoculating substance is intro-
duced into the capillary tip by raising the cup and thus lowering the
temperature of the mercury. The tip is then inserted into the cell
selected for inoculation, and the mercury in the loop expanded by lower-
ing the cup containing the ice-water ; the inoculating substance being
driven out by pressure into the substance of the cell body.

Diagnosis of Asiatic Cholera.* — B. C. Cromwell has investigated
a series of cases post mortem, with the view of ascertaining how far
cholera can be diagnosed from the gross pathological lesions without
having recourse to bacteriological examination. Ninety-two cases were
examined in all, and while it was ascertained that no anatomical feature
was in constant evidence, a diagnosis of cholera might be based on the
following features : — Acute catarrhal enteritis associated with (1) cyanotic
finger nails ; (2) dry tissues ; (3) oligemia ; (4) dry and sticky peritoneum,
with pink serosa of the ileum ; (5) contracted and empty urinary
bladder ; (6) shrunken, dry spleen and liver ; (7) acute degeneration of
parenchymatous organs ; (8) poorly coagulated blood ; (9) absence of
formed fasces ; (10) presence of " rice water stools 1 ' ; and (11) prominence
of lymphoid tissue in the ileum. Comparison of anatomical and
bacteriological findings led to an identity of diagnosis in eighty-seven
cases. Five cases anatomically negative were proved to be positive on
bacteriological examination.

(3) Cutting, including- Embedding- and Microtomes.

New Spencer Rotary Microtome.f — The Spencer Lens Co. have
set themselves to remedy the defect usually found in rotary microtomes,
viz., want of accuracy in cutting, one after another, sections of definite
uniform thickness. They claim to have accomplished this by making

* Philippine Journ. Sci., ix. (1914) pp. 361-5.

t Special Pamphlet, Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo, New York.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

77

the sliding part S P (fig. 10), into which the object-clamp tits, move
freely backward and forward iu B, its polished inclined surface being
firmly held by a spring against the point P which, in turn, is firmly sup-
supported on the slideway forming a part of the feed-mechanism, which
again, in turn, is independent of the up-and-down movement. This is
contrary to most microtomes, as in the majority of them the feed-
mechanism is dependent on the up-and-down movement, with the result
that sooner or later inequality of section-cutting results. In the Spencer

FYG. 1

Pig. 10.

machine the feed-mechanism is composed of a rigid bearing on which the
feed-block F B, of which the point P is a part, is moved by the feed-
screw F S. As this block is moved towards the side on which the balance
wheel W is located, the sliding part S P is forced forward towards the
knife one half as much, because the polished surface resting against the
point P is set at the proper angle to accomplished this purpose. Thus
any imperfection in the screw is reduced by one half. As the screw is
cut with two threads to the millimetre and as it is revolved by a ratchet
feed-wheel with 250 teeth, each tooth represents a feeding of the object
forward one micron. The feed is so arranged that it can he set for

78

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

sect ions of any thickness, from one micron to sixty microns, by turning the
knurled button at the buck of the case, just below the hinge, until the
number representing the desired thickness appears opposite the indicator
I (rig. 11) at the small opening in the side of the case near the balance-
wheel. The total excursion of the feed is ?>1 mm., allowing a sufficient
range for cutting a complete series of a very large object without the
necessity of a break in the series, due to resetting the knife and the f eed-
ing-mechanism. The pawl FP (rig. 11). which works into the teeth of
the feed ratchet-wheel F W (fig. 10) is located at the end of an arm F A
(fig. 11), which swings on an axis identical with that of the screw.
This arm is actuated by a connecting arm C A (fig. 11) running from

F~IG.S

XX\ CP CD

Pig. 11.

it to an excentric EC (fig. 11), which revolves with the balance-wheel
W. This excentric is so located on the axis that the feeding is done
when the object is at its upper limit and thus above the knife, thereby
avoiding the danger of forcing the face of the paraffin against the knife
on the upward stroke.

By the side of the feeding ratchet-wheel there is another ratchet-
wheel M W (fig. 10) like it, but placed with the teeth running in the
opposite direction. Working into the teeth of this wheel is a pawl
MP (fig. 11) fastened to the upright support of the sliding bearing of
the feed block FB. This pawl is kept away from the teeth of its
rachet-wheel by a cam fastened to the arm carrying the feed pawl, and
is allowed to engage the teeth only for an instant at the extreme end of
the feeding stroke. This brings the wheels and feed screw to a definite

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

79

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

80

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

stop overcoming momentum and always ensuring sections of exactly the
thickness called for; which is. <>i' course, a very essential feature. Thi
feed pawl is automatically lifted free from the teeth of its ratchet-wheel
on the return stroke, thus avoiding wear and the accompanying noise.
There arc special arrangements for avoiding injury to thread of feed
when the nut has reached its limit and for resumption of cutting. The
up-and-down stroke of the object clamp is 2 in. The whole of the
feeding mechanism is covered thus protecting the wearing parts from
dust, and presenting a much neater apparatus (figs. 12, 13).

New Spencer Cylindrical Ribbon-carrier.* -This apparatus, which
is shown in fig. 14. has been made after C. E. McClung. The

Fig. 11.

aluminium cylinder is mounted in an aluminium framework, under the
base of which are little rollers rotating in the direction of the long
dimension of the frame. The end of the ribbon adheres to the cylinder,
which is slowly turned by the little buttons at the end as the ribbon
lengthens. At the same time the cylinder and frame are gently pushed
forward on the recess so as to place the ribbon on the cylinder in a long
spiral. The cylinder is 4i in. long and 2£ in. in diameter.

* Spencer Microscopes and
83 Wigmore Street, London, W.

Accessories, 1914. Buffalo, New York, and

ZOOLOGY AND HOTAX\, MICROSCOPY, ETC. SI

(4) Staining and Injecting-.

Method of Staining Parasitic Amoebae.* — The difficulty of satis-
factorily staining the amoebae of dysentery and allied forms is in practice
considerable, so that any method which can be relied on to give good
results is of interest. The following directions are given in a recent
communication by Alexander Marshall, of the Wellcome Tropical
Research Laboratories at Khartoum. Smears are made from dysenteric
stools and transferred rapidly, while still wet, to Schaudinn's fluid.
They are then washed in alcohol of different strengths and finally in
distilled water, after which they are stained in Delarield's haematoxylin
for twenty minutes. They are next washed in tap water and stained
with carbol-fuchsin, as for tubercle bacilli ; after which thev are a^ain
washed with water and finally differentiated with Sprengel's solution of
picric acid, consisting of equal parts of absolute alcohol and of saturated
watery solution of the acid. This is applied for three to five minutes,
during which time the reagent is changed three or four times. The
stained films are then dehydrated in absolute alcohol, cleared in xylol,
and mounted in Canada balsam. Thus treated, the nuclei of the
parasites are stained a purplish black, while the cytoplasm is a pale
translucent yellow colour. Red blood corpuscles are also stained yellow.
The method is described as easy, rapid, and certain in its results, and is
certainly well worth trial by those called upon to make this investigation.

Cytology of the Stamens of Smilax herbacea.f — Lilian E.
Humphrey carried out an investigation, the primary purpose of which
was to observe the reduction division in the microsporocytes of Smilax
herbacea. The buds were killed in Schaff ner's weaker chrom-acetic acid and
with a trace of osmic acid added, being left in this for twenty-four hours.
After being thoroughly washed in water, the material was dehydrated by
passing it through the various grades of alcohol to 70 p.c, where it was
left for about three months, when it was passed through the higher
grades into chloroform, from which it was gradually passed into pure
paraffin and embedded. Sections 10> to 13/u thick were cut.

Several methods of staining were used. The first tried was anilin-
safranin, which was a fairly good stain, but it did not make enough
differentiation between the chromatin material and the cytoplasm to be
easily studied. Next Heidenhain's iron-alum-haematoxylin was used and
found to be very good, staining the chromatin material black and the
surrounding tissues brownish. In using this stain the slides were passed
through turpentine, xylol, the different grades of alcohol to water, then
passed through iron-alum, where they were left for two hours ; after
being well washed in water, they were left four hours or longer in

* Lancet (1915) i. p. 145.

t Ohio Naturalist, xv. (1914) pp. 357-67 (2 pis.).

Feb. 17 th, 1915 G

32 SUMMARY OF CURRKNT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Heidenhain's hematoxylin, after which they were washed and placed in

iron-alum to clear, and after dehydration they were mounted in Canada
balsam. The most satisfactory stain was Delafield's baematoxylin. The
slides were passed through alcohols to 25 p.c, then into Delafield, where
they were left for two hours, after which they wire washed in water and
passed up through the alcohols and mounted.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY MICROSCOPY, ETC. 83

Metallography, etc.

Metallography of German Silver. *— F. C. Thompson has studied
the microstructure of commercial specimens of German silver, consisting
of the a solid solution of the copper-zinc-nickel system. In one series
of experiments four melts of identical composition were made. To one
was added ■ 25 p.c. manganese, to another • 5 p.c. aluminium ; while
no addition was made to the remaining two. The alloys after casting
were rolled into sheets and annealed. The mean area of the crystals of
the two alloys which had not been deoxidized was 0*3 sq. cm., while the
mean crystal-area of the alloys deoxidized respectively with manganese
and with aluminium was ■ 0005 sq. cm. The manganese had passed
almost wholly into the slag, hardly a trace remaining in the alloy. A
specimen of high nickel content, after annealing at an excessively high
temperature, was found to have a very definite " casting " structure.
It was then annealed at 750° C. for four hours. The structure after
this treatment was normal, and all traces of the dendritic markings had
disappeared. The specimen was next reheated to about 1000° C. for
one hour : this caused the reappearance of the casting pattern. Th
author believes that the casting pattern, reproduced by overheating
previously annealed alloys,, is a remnant of the structure of the original
ingot, but so faintly preserved that in ordinary circumstances it is not
seen. Its reappearance may be due to incipient volatilization of zinc
occurring at high temperatures. An overheated specimen showed
almost complete absence of twin crystals. A series of seven alloys
ranging in nickel content from 7 to 22 p.c. were submitted to ordinary
commercial treatment. The size of the crystals diminished notably
with increasing nickel content, the mean crystal-area being 0*015 sq.
cm. in the alloy containing 12 p.c. nickel, and 0"0005 sq. cm. in the
alloy containing 22 p.c. nickel. The sections were etched with 5 p.c.
ferric chloride solution.

Artificial Twin-crystals in Tin.f — The crystals of a block of tin
affected by stresses may contain twinned lamellae ; these become ap-
parent in an artificially-polished surface etched with hydrochloric acid.
P. Gaubert has studied the formation of the twin-crystals in the following
manner. A few grammes of tin were melted between clean plane glass
surfaces. By pressing the upper glass plate, the layer of tin could be
brought to the desired thickness. On solidification a plate of tin was
obtained with plane surfaces having a perfect polish. By controlling
the rate of cooling during solidification, the crystals could be obtained

* Journ. Cheiu. Soc. cv. (1914) pp. 2342-9 (7 figs.).
t Oomptes Rendus, clix. (1914) pp. 680-2.

G 2

84 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of any desired size, up to the whole area of the specimen, which then
consisted of one crystal. Striking such a plate of tin with the point of
a needle produced : (1) on the face opposite to the face penetrated, a
cross in relief, with broad arms ; (2) two or three series of bright bands,
parallel, of width up to 0*5 mm., and reaching from the impression
made by the needle, to the boundary of the crystal. These twinned
lamellae passed right through the crystal. Their faces, originally in the
same plane as the general surface of the plate, now formed an angle of
several degrees with it. Further phenomena observed are described.
The " cry " of tin appears to be caused by the formation of twinned
crystals.

Dilute Solutions of Aluminium in Gold.* — C. T. Heycock and
F. H. Neville have determined the equilibrium diagram of the aluminium-
gold system for the range to 5 p.c. aluminium, and describe the
microstrncture of the numerous alloys examined. From to 2 p.c.
aluminium the a solid solution only was found. From 2 to 3 p.c. the
alloys consisted of a and ft, ft being stable only above 424° C. A sub-
stance D may be the compound Al 3 Au 8 . Polished and etched surfaces
of ft that have been chilled at a high temperature show, under high
magnification, groups of fine parallel lines, the direction of the lines
changing from grain to grain so as to give the effect of shading. This
is due to a laminated structure in the ft, perhaps to an incipient decompo-
sition. When ft is slowly cooled it breaks up at 424° C. (the eutectoid
temperature) into a complex of a and of D. The etching reagents
used were bromine water and aqua regia ; the two gave practically the
same pattern.

Nitrogen in Steel. f — A peculiar structure found in the welded
portions of electrically-welded iron plates led B. Strauss to undertake an
investigation upon nitrogen in steel. These welded portions contained
up to 0*12 p.c. nitrogen, while plates welded by means of acetylene
contained 0"02 p.c. nitrogen. The nitrification of iron specimens in a
current of ammonia gas begins below 300° C, and proceeds most rapidly
between 600° and 800° C. In this way are obtained layers differing in
nitrogen content and in structure. The outermost layer of a nitrified
specimen of pure iron consisted of the nitride Fe 4 N 2 . Below this was
a layer, having a pearlite-like structure, in which both carbon and
nitrogen were present, the carbon being obtained from pyridine, an
impurity in the ammonia used. The next layer had an acicular structure,
which was also present in the electrically-welded plates. The needles,
formerly regarded as consisting of an iron-nitride, were found to be
twinned lamella? in the nitrogen-containing ferrite crystals. When
carbon steels were nitrified, another constituent, appearing as light
brown specks in the etched specimens, was formed. The iron nitride
was readily decomposed by heating : when elements such as silicon.

* Phil. Trans., Series A, ccxiv. (1914) pp. 267-76 (26 figs.),
t Stahl und Eisen, xxxiv. (1914) pp. 1055-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 85

and chromium were also present, nitrification at higher temperatures
caiised the formation of the nitrides of these elements, these nitrides
being more stable than iron-nitride. Heat-tinting was employed to
distinguish the constituents, since the nitrogen-containing constituents
oxidized more rapidly than the carbide or the ferrite. Lnmiere auto-
chrome photomicrographs preserved a record of the heat-tinted specimens
in their actual colours.

Decarburization of Steels in Salt Baths.* — A. M. Portevin
describes experiments indicating the considerable extent of the decar-
burization of surface layers which may occur in steel objects during
heating in salt baths previous to hardening. When cyanides are present
in the salt bath, the carbon-content of a low-carbon steel may be
increased, that of a high-carbon steel diminished, by immersion. In
iron, originally carbon-free, which had become superficially carburized
through heating in a salt bath containing cyanides, there were observe I
microscopically, in the ferrite below the carburized layer, needles
resembling those seen in specimens of steel suspected to contain much
nitrogen.

Heat-treatment of Steel Wircf — In the course of manufacture,
steel wire undergoes heat-treatments which vary according to the
composition of the steel and the purpose for which the wire is intended.
J. F. Tinsley describes and explains the effect of such treatments on
microstructure. The principal heat-treatments are : (1) annealing ;
(2) " patenting " ; and (3) hardening and tempering. Annealing is
employed to effect one or more of three results : (a) to remove cold-
work effects ; (b) to refine the crystalline structure ; (c) to produce some
desired structure such as granular pearlite. To remove cold-work effects
it is not necessary to heat above the critical range ; ' 600° C. is a
sufficiently high temperature. " Patenting " consists in heating above
the critical range and cooling rapidly to a temperature below the critical
range, as by immersion in molten lead. The structure produced is
sorbitic. Hardening and tempering are usually conducted as a
continuous operation, the wire passing from the furnace, through a
quenching bath of oil or water, and then through a tempering bath such
as molten lead.

Theory of Hardening and Constitution of Steel 4 — In some
remarks introductory to a discussion of the constitution of steel, E. D.
Campbell states that in a steel containing 0*82 p.c. carbon, cooled from
1060° to 700° C. in seven hours, the carbide areas were sharply separated,
and were 0*2 to 0*3 mm. in size, embedded in nearly pure ferrite, the

*|Journ. Iron and Steel. Inst., xc. (1914, 2) pp. 196-203 (2 figs.).
t Iron and Coal Trades Review, lxxxviii. (1914) pp. 948-50 (8 figs.).
t Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., xc. (1914, 2) pp. 1-16.

86 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

distance between individual carbide areas being somewhat greater than
their diameters. The author's experience suggests that, in steel annealed
in this way. at least an hour at 1000° C. is required for precipitated
carbides to redissolve and diffuse so that a strictly homogeneous solid
solution in chemical equilibrium is obtained.

■ t<^3-+-

87

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 16th December, 1914, at 20 Hanover Square, W. t
Mr. E. Heron-Allen, F.L.S. F.G.S., etc., Vice-President, in
the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of November 18, 1914, were read,
and, when confirmed, were signed by the Chairman.

Mr. J. E. Barnard gave a lecture on " The X-rays in Relation to
the Microscope," which he elucidated both by apparatus and by diagrams.
Illustrations of his photographic work on the Foraminifera by X-ray
methods were thrown on the screen, and the specimens described by
Mr. Arthur Earland.

At the close of Mr. Barnard's communication,

The Chairman (Mr. Heron- Allen) said : Mr. Barnard has been good
enough to furnish me with a duplicate set of the slides of Foraminifera
which he has exhibited, and to discuss with me his views upon the questions
involved in the very remarkable demonstration which he has given us
this evening. I am much indebted to him, because it has given me
an opportunity of considering the matter more carefully than is possible
had I come fresh to it at this Meeting ; and on an occasion so im-
portant as this is it behoves one to weigh carefully what he says in
commenting upon the paper. I feel that this is the more important
because I think it is more than likely that some day the recorded
minutes of this Meeting will be referred to by students as marking
the commencement of a new era in the history of biological research.
I have no hesitation in saying, and I say it with a full sense of the
responsibility which I incur, that during the period (now close upon a
quarter of a century) in which I have been a Fellow of this Society,
and have read its Proceedings when I have not been able to attend
its Meetings, the communication of Mr. Barnard this evening is by far
the most weighty pronouncement that has been made before the Society.
I will even go so far as to say that the ultimate goal which thoughtful
biologists (endowed with that quality of imagination which Tyndall,
Huxley, Lankester, and others have described as an indispensable factor
in the equipment of a biological researcher) must foreshadow as a result
of Mr. Barnard's work, may be of an importance standing hardly second
to the discovery of the circulation of the blood.

<S8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The importance of the results of Mr. Barnard's manipulative skill

divides itself clearly and at once under three heads. First, the prac-
tical value of this method of examination to the pure systematist in the
determination of species. I understand that at present the expense of
the apparatus required is very great, but experience teaches us that this
is a matter which is likely to he solved by time, and that this is a diffi-
culty which will yield to the imperative laws of demand.

We have seen demonstrated the internal structure of a foraminiferal
test which has defied the usual methods of transparent mounting and
critical illumination, and systematic zoologists will readily recognize the
paramount value of a method which enables them to diagnose the
internal structure of an organism of which, as frequently happens, only
a single specimen is forthcoming — a structure which otherwise cannot
be ascertained without the intervention of an exploratory operation
which, in common with some other exploratory operations, occasionally
destroys the patient.

Second, by the methods which Mr. Barnard lias put before us the
study of the bionomics of those Protozoa which, like the Foraminifera,
are enclosed in an opaque shell, is for the first time rendered easy — 1
may say for the first time rendered possible. When we set out to study
by experiments a biological problem in the case of such organisms, our
only chance of arriving at a result has hitherto- been to gauge, as nearly
as we can, the moment at which the phenomenon has taken place inside
the test, and then to kill the animal and ascertain the progress of the
experiment or its result, by the extremely difficult and dangerous pro-
cess of decalcifying the organism and mounting the protoplasmic body
in some transparent medium. From an examination of the internal
structure of a dead shell such as Mr. Barnard has demonstrated to us,
to the examination of that shell in the living condition is but a step, a
long step perhaps, but one which we may confidently rely upon such
expert manipulators as Mr. Barnard to take when the need shall arise.
We shall then be able to observe, without killing the animal, the pro-
gress of many phenomena that have engaged the attention of rhizopodists,
and to find answers to questions which have hitherto defied any solution
that is not purely conjectural. To mention only one or two of such
problems, we may refer to the phenomenon of the absorption of the
internal septa in many genera, as for instance in the genus Polymorphina
which so long ago as 1883, engaged the attention of the late Dr. Alcock.*
and comparatively lately of Mr. Henry Sidebottom, | and the formation
of polythalamous young already invested with a calcareous test inside
the parent shell, as recorded by Earland in 11)05, and by us jointly on
several subsequent occasions. | We may not unreasonably look forward
to the elucidation by Mr. Barnard's method of the problem of the
growth of monothalamous arenaceous shells. I see no reason for doubt-
ing that this process is one parallel to that described by Professor Max
Verworn and Professor Minchin in the case of the fresh-water Rhizopoda

* Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, xxii. (1883) p. 67.
t Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester (1907) No. 9, p. 17.
t Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, ser. 2, ix. (1905) p. 222. See also Proc. R. Irish
Acad., xxxi. (1913) pt. 64, p. 119.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 89

Difflugia and Euglypha, who have shown that foreign particles are drawn
into the interior of the protoplasmic body and stored in the fundus of
the shell, and are used, as necessity arises, in the growth or repair of the
shell, * a theory which we expounded in our paper read before the
British Association in 1913, and published in the Journal of fehia
Society, f The soundness of these deductions is brought within a reas< tri-
able probability of solution by the utilization of the methods which
Mr. Barnard has described.

The third head is, of course, by far the most important, and is, I
am bold enough to say, epoch-making, and that is the vast question
of the structure, if not of the composition, of protoplasm — and when
I say of protoplasm I mean, of course, of living protoplasm. Pro-
fessor Arthur Dendy has summed up one side of this question in an
admirable sentence. He says : " It is difficult to form a satisfactory
idea of the chemical composition of protoplasm, because it is im-
possible to analyse it in the living condition ; indeed, in the living
condition it is constantly undergoing chemical change, and the moment
it dies it ceases to be protoplasm. "J The question of the structure of
protoplasm is one before which, to use a common phrase, the brain reels
and the senses gape. Our late President, Sir Ray Lankester, recently
told me a story which, if it has not been recorded elsewhere, is worthy
of record now. Some time in the early part of the latter quarter of
the last century, whilst attending a scientific Congress in Belgium he
was privileged and astonished to meet Theodor Schwann, the founder
of the cell theory,§ who was then a very old man, and indeed had
apparently retired from the scientific world for a great many years.
Sir Ray Lankester asked him what he had been doing in all those years
during which he had never been heard of, and Theodor Schwann told
him he had devoted the whole of his time and attention, with the
assistance of the most perfected processes and optical apparatus, to an
endeavour to establish the existence of any structure in protoplasm — and
that his investigations had been absolutely without result. No doubt
many Fellows of this Society are familiar with Dr. Biitschli's remarkable
work on this subject. || I am not going to digress upon the subject of
the alveolar nature of protoplasm set forth in that work, but in listening
to Mr. Barnard's observations it seems to me that if ever this problem is
to be solved, Mr. Barnard has indicated the road which leads to its solution.

Again, Mr. Barnard has hardly more than touched upon the optical
methods employed with regard to the cutting off of certain rays of the
spectrum and the exclusive use of others. Who shall say that by the
utilization of these means we are not upon the threshold of the secret
of the chemical constitution of protoplasm itself ? To quote Professor

* Verworn, 1888-90. Zeitschr. Wiss.iZool. Leipzig, xlvi. p. 455; 1. p. 443. See
also Minchin, " Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa," 1912, p. 35.

t See this Journal, 1913, pp. 13-14.

j A. Dendy, " Outlines of Evolutionary Biology," 1912, p. 22.

§ " Microscopical Investigations on the Structure and Growth of Plants and
Animals " (Berlin 1839) Translation, Sydenham Society, 1847.

l| O. Biitschli, " Mikroscopische Schaume," 1892. Translated by E. A. Minchin,
London, 1894.

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

I >endy once more : — " The fact that one organism will select silica while
another selects carbonate of lime from the same sample of sea-water and
for the same purpose, must correspond to some deep-seated difference in
the protoplasm of which they are composed, and illustrates very well
the diverse potentialities of this remarkable substance." * One may
carry this further by a reference to the fact that, again, in the same
sample of sea-water, organisms whose protoplasmic bodies are absolutely
indistinguishable by the methods hitherto at our disposal have been
shown to secrete for the construction of their skeletons the relatively
rare substance sulphate of strontium. f As long ago as 1858 Messrs.
Claparede and Lachmann published the following remarkable state-
ment : " The animal which secretes the calcareous test of a Polystomella
cannot be merely a mass of sarcode. The very existence of these com-
plicated tests teaches us that, seeing that we can recognize nothing in
the nature of organization in the soft parts of the animal, we must only
blame our methods and our means of observation. Where would be the
microscopic anatomy of the central nervous system without chromic
acid ? The protoplasm of the Rhizopods has not yet found its chromic
acid." % I do not think it is too much to suggest that Mr. Barnard is
on the high road to the discovery of "the chromic acid of therhizopodal
protoplasm."

One word in conclusion. It may be said that I have laid too great
a stress on the branch of this enquiry relating especially to the Foram-
inifera. It may be said in reply that the naked amoeboid forms are
more conveniently organized for the purpose of the enquiry, and that
such forms as Proteomi/xa and Myxotheca would be easier of manipula-
tion, but I would answer that, rightly or wrongly, Mr. Earland and I
have founded upon evidence which we have laid before the Zoological
Society, and which will be published in the Proceedings of that Society,
the opinion that the protoplasm of the Foraminifera shows by its
function and behaviour a higher organization and higher potentialities
than that of any other group of the Protozoa. Professor Mas Verworn
has rightly observed that the unicellular organisms seem to have been
created by nature for the physiologists, for, besides their great capacity
for resistance, of all living things they have the invaluable advantage
of standing nearest to the first and simplest forms of life.§ I see no
reason why Mr. Barnard, by the combined use of the methods which he
has described and of spectrum analysis, should not one day identify that
mysterious unknown constituent— that Aristotelian ivTeX^a — f or which
Sir Ray Lankester has suggested the term " Plasmogen."

I esteem it a great privilege to have been present this evening, and
I make bold to say that in years to come there are many of us present
to-night who will be proud to be able to say that they listened to
Mr. Barnard on this occasion.

Mr. Julius Rheinberg said that, like the Chairman, he ventured to

* A. Dendy, " Outlines of Evolutionary Biology," 1912, p. 26.
t 0. Butschli, 1906, Zool. Ariz. Leipzig, xxx., p. 784.

: E. Claparede and K. J. F. Lachman, Mem. Inst. Nat. Genevois, 1858, vi.,
p. 422.

§ G. N. Calkins, " The Protozoa," London, 1901, p. 2.

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE .SOCIETY. 91

believe that the lecture they had just heard was not merely interesting,
but epoch-making. Mr. Barnard had dealt with two subjects, the one
the practical application of skiagraph methods to microscopic objects,
the other the possible future development of microscopy on other lines,
by the aid of X-rays. The Chairman referred to the great importance
of the first method of which they had had such beautiful illustrations,
but what in the speaker's mind constituted the epoch-making nature of
the lecture, was the idea, for the first time publicly recorded by
Mr. Barnard this evening, that X-rays might be made available in the
service of microscopy for increasing resolving power now that they were
proved to be akin to light waves, but of infinitely shorter wave-length.

For thirty years or more there had seemed to be no possible means
of increasing the power of resolution of the Microscope to any marked
degree. Mr. Barnard had that evening indicated what the speaker felt
sure would be the future lines of progress and development. He had
felt that conviction from the moment that it had been suggested to him
by Mr. Barnard in a conversation they had had early last year, not long
after the publication of Friedrich, Knipping, and Laue's famous paper,
in which the properties of X-rays were first shown to resemble those of
light rays in ways which had not till then been demonstrated.

At the present time its application to microscopy was still only
theory, and it might very well take a long time before substantial pro-
gress could be made, and the technique of the methods to be employed
worked out, but he thought Mr. Barnard's communication would scarcely
fail to have the important effect of stimulating research in this direction.

It w r as desirable to free one's mind from the idea that the future
Microscope, utilizing X-rays, would be anything like the present form
of instrument. When it came to dealing with wave-lengths, a thousand
or even a few hundred times shorter than those of ordinary light, it was
manifestly impossible to use anything in the nature of lenses. That
would be like trying to skate on a road paved with cobble-stones.
Lenses had to be polished so that any irregularities of their surfaces
bore a small proportion to the wave-lengths of the light they were used
with ; it was hopeless to expect any approach to that with artificially
polished lenses, when wave-lengths of the order indicated came into
question. It was probable, therefore, that, in the first place, all would
have to be done by means of instruments with reflecting surfaces. It
was that which had led Mr. Barnard to make experiments with curved
mica plates, to see whether it was possible to expand and contract the
cones of X-rays, for the power of contracting and expanding cones of
light was the primary essential to any optical method of magnification.

Mr. Rheinberg then reverted to Mr. Barnard's improved method of
producing skiagrams of microscopic objects, remarking on the ingenuity
of the arrangements used. Regarding the possible limits of magnifica-
tion by this method, he expressed the opinion that this could not be
carried beyond comparatively low magnifications, because it was not a
case of using any proper optical system, but of producing shadow-
graphs by means of a "light" source and diaphragms. The actual
sizes of the source of radiation and the diaphragms would play a pre-
ponderating role if it were intended to develop magnifying power, and.

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

unless possibilities were found of making the source and the diaphragms
through which the rays passed exceedingly small smaller than was
possililc in practice — the useful magnification would, in his opinion,
always be a very restricted one. Be thought, therefore, that no ad-
vantage would be gained by pressing that method beyond very
moderate magnifications, but the field of interest of the method was.
without that, large enough, as all would realize who had been there
that evening and had seen Mr. Barnard's remarkable results.

Mr. Maurice Blood asked a few technical questions, particularly
whether the anode was connected up with the anti-cathode, and also
their respective functions; and, further, whether it might be possible
to get magnification by the pinhole camera if there were a very strong
source of X-rays \ At present, as he understood it. parallel rays were
used naturally, giving a " life-size " image, but if it were possible to
use a pin-hole this would he an alternative possible method of getting
magnification.

Mr. Cheshire said he did not propose to speak at any length, because
Mr. Barnard's paper had opened out such a vast range of possibilities,
that it would be useless to enter upon them at the present time, but
there was one point in connexion with the slides he would like to ask
about. As he understood Mr. Barnard., his methods so far necessitated
taking the natural size of the object ; he supposed that all further
magnification had to be done photographically from the negative in the
ordinary way. He would also like to know whether, in Mr. Barnard's
opinion, so far as he had foreshadowed it, his method could be applied to
the photographing of protoplasmic structures in the way the Chairman
had indicated ?

Dr. Shillington Scales asked wdiat was the equivalent spark-gap of
the tube with which the photographs were taken ? To which question.
Mr. Barnard replied, one inch. Dr. Scales then said he thought Mr.
Barnard's lecture had been extraordinarily interesting, though he had
been unable to follow his flights so far into the future, and personally
he could not see how his hopes were to be realized, though he agreed
that in his paper and demonstrations Mr. Barnard had shown that many
possibilities were opened up by his method. He had been rather sur-
prised to find Mr. Barnard had any doubt that the granulations in his
skiagrams were actually in the Foraminifera, He thought it was hardly
possible that they should have been in the plates or screen ; they were
so manifestly due to the granules in the Foraminifera themselves that he
would have thought that no doubt could have arisen.

Dr. G. H. Rodman, Past-President of the Rontgen Society, said that
as a visitor he would like to tender his thanks for the opportunity of
listening to Mr. Barnard. It had been a particular pleasure to renew
his acquaintance with this room, where he had at one time attended
so many discussions on the theory and use of the X-rays when it was
the home of the Rontgen Society. He had always watched with
interest the progress made in connexion with this particular branch of
science. He had been induced to come to the Meeting that evening
from reading in the ' Morning Post ' a notice that Mr. Barnard was
speaking on X-rays and microscopy, and as a practical worker in both

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. ' 93

these spheres of activity, he felt naturally interested in the subject of
the evening- lecture. He was well aware of the existence of M. Goby's
work on similar lines to those described by Mr. Barnard, and it had been
his privilege to criticize it, so that he was well versed in what had been
seen in London of the radiography of Foraminifera sent over from
Paris. The use of the X-rays in connexion with the Microscope had re-
solved itself in his experience into two directions. Firstly, the Micro-
scope representation of the effect produced by the cathode rays on the
metallic disk known as the anticathode, taken from an old tube which
had done its work. If such an anticathode were examined by a Micro-
scope objective, very graphic evidence would be found of the results by
the ionic impact which had taken place upon the anticathode. Another
and more serious matter, however, such as might arise from the practice
of X-ray microscopy, was the appearance of certain diseases, known a&
X-ray dermatitis, produced by too frequent and incautious exposure
to X-rays. A year or so ago the Rontgen Society had a visit from a
French surgeon, Dr. Cluny, who produced a very fine collection of
photomicrographs in colour of cancerous growths following on the
obstinative inflammation of the skin brought about by exposure to
X-rays. A hard tube might be used with comparative safety, but this
particular soft form of tube required for the work to which Mr. Barnard
had been directing then attention was extremely dangerous to use,
and he thought he would be wrong if he did not outline the risk run in
employing such a tube. One suggestion he would like to make was,
that in his work with the X-rays in connexion with the microscopic
examination of molluscan shells, he had found it more satisfactory to-
carry the photography one stage further, and produce negative rather
than positive results — and he threw out the hint to Mr. Barnard in this
respect. He would like to ask Mr. Barnard on what he based his ex-
posure, whether he judged it by the penetration of the tube, or was it a
question of the distance of the object from the anticathode ? The
weight and density of the specimen examined also entered largely into
the calculation.

Dr. Geo. H. Rodman, in speaking of the granularity complained of
by Mr. Barnard, said that from experience of many forms of X-ray
plates he thought that the lecturer would not suffer in this respect if he
used a plate suggested by Dr. Mees and designed by him for special
X-ray investigation. In his (the speaker's) hands, and with careful
development, this plate left little to be desired. He wished to con-
gratulate the Society upon Mr. Barnard's most excellent paper and
demonstration ; the resnlts shown upon the screen had been highly
satisfactory, and he thought they exceeded in beauty, and certainly in
descriptive value, those first of all shown in this country by Monsieur
Goby in 1913.

Mr. Barnard expressed his thanks to Mr. Heron- Allen for his
extremely laudatory remarks which he felt he really did not deserve.
He quite thought with him that at least a light was shed upon what up
to then had been impenetrable gloom. He did not think that anything
he had said inferred more than that. The particular way in which
X-ravs could be utilized to their fullest advantage in microscopy

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

remained for the future developments to decide, but they would t»e so

utilized, and it might not be so very long before a 'thing practical

would be done.

In reply to questions, Mr. Rheinberg had raised a point as to
magnification, and hardly thought that high magnifications would he
possible by the method described. lie was probably right, but it was
perhaps not yet possible to assign any particular limit. The points
mentioned in regard to small diaphragms and such like had engaged his
attention, and it seemed to him that given a sufficiently small diaphragm
a photograph of an average sized diatom might be obtained provided
the photographic plate were sufficiently grainless.

In regard to Mr. Blood's questions about the X-ray tube : the water-
bulb was a cooling arrangement. The cathode stream acting on the
anticathode caused the latter to get very hot. In regard to his question
about a pinhole camera, he could not definitely answer this, and he con-
fessed it was rather a new point. But, given a sufficiently small hole in
relation to the size of the source of light, it might be possible to do
something in this direction.

Mr. Cheshire had asked a question about enlargement ; the resulting
X-ray photograph was the same size as the object and any enlargement
had to be obtained by photographic means. The definition, however,
was of a higher order, owing to the fact that the object was in contact
with the plate and the X-ray wave-length short. He was in hopes of
getting a plate which had no grain whatever, and Mr. Rheinberg had
suggested that some organic material such as albumen impregnated with
a suitable uranium salt might be used.

In regard to the possibility of photographing organisms or proto-
plasm, that was a question of the opacity of the substance to X-rays.
He believed that so far as the ordinary X-ray tube went, one was very
much limited. X-rays as usually generated passed through organic sub-
stances without much difficulty, but recent investigations showed that
X-rays could be produced at much lower potentials than that used on
the ordinary X-ray tube. For the latter a pressure of sixty or seventy
thousand volts or so might be used, but lately it had been stated that
X-rays could be produced at a pressure of only 500 volts. If this were
so, the gap between the Schumann waves and the X-rays might be
bridged by a series of radiations which varied from the wave-length of ultra-
violet light to that of the average X-ray. Perhaps a radiation having
an intermediate wave-length might prove to be extremely valuable. It
might even happen that among these radiations a particular wave-length
and a possible source of energy would be obtained whereby one might
be able to arrive at the structure or the differences of character of
organic substances which up to the present had not been possible. Dr.
Shillington Scales had mentioned his surprise at the nature of the
o-ranulations appearing on the skiagraphs having been questioned, and
asserted that in his mind there could be no doubt as to their structural
origin. If he had done some of these small photographs, he would not
have been surprised. In many cases with exceedingly small objects, the
structure was smaller than the grain of the plate ; in this case the grain
predominated and the structure was not evident. But there were still

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 95

points in the photographs which might be ascribed to grain in the
plate and not to the structure.

In regard to the point raised by Dr. Rodman as to the danger of
using this particular wave length, he would like to say that Dr. Rodman
omitted to mention another equally important point, the soft X-rays,
while the most dangerous, were the most easily stopped. He had to
own that he had not at present any idea how the time of exposure
might be systematically arrived at. In such small organisms, one was
not, after all, dealing with a gross structure nor very great depths, but
merely with a shell ; that there were definite limits of exposure he had
no doubt, but as to the actual methods by which he had arrived at them
he was unable at present to give any definite indication.

The very hearty thanks of the Meeting were accorded to Mr. Barnard
for his lecture and demonstration.

The Chairman announced that the suggestions of the Society in
regard to the nominations of Officers and Council for the ensuing year
had been considered by the Council and would be read out by Mr.
Cheshire.

The Chairman said that notice had been given at the last meeting
that By-law 36 would be suspended for one year, in order that Professor
Sims Woodhead might be elected for a further term of Office.

Mr. E. J. Sheppard proposed and Mr. Rousselet seconded that this
By-law should be suspended ; and the resolution, having been put to the
Meeting, was unanimously carried.

The Chairman called upon the Meeting to appoint an Auditor on
behalf of the Fellows.

It was proposed by Mr. J. W. Ogilvy, seconded by Mr. Joseph Wilson,
and carried unanimously, that Mr. H. F. Angus be appointed Auditor
to act on behalf of the Fellows.

The Chairman announced that the Society had suffered a great loss
in the death of Professor Weismann, Honorary Fellow since the year
1*79. In connexion with the death of this gentleman, it was an inter-
esting point that Professor Weismann had recently been leader of the
movement in Germany that professors should give up their English
honorary degrees. The death was also announced of Mr. F. W. Anderton,
F.R.C.V.S., who was elected in 1913 and died in October of the present
year.

The Chairman called attention to the Roll which was ready for the
signatures of those Fellows who had not already signed.

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

1 1 was announced thai the next ordinary meeting * » I" the Society
would take place on Wednesday, .January 20, when Officers and
Council for the ensuing year would be elected.

The Biological Section would meet for its ordinary meeting on
January 6. On December 30 it bad been arranged that the Section
should visit the Laboratory and Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society.
It was also announced that the rooms of the Society would be closed
from Wednesday evening, December 23, to Monday morning, December
28.

The following Instruments, Apparatus, etc., were exhibited : —

Mr. Joseph E. Barnard, Apparatus demonstrating the application of
X-rays to microscopy.

New Fellow : — Lieut.-Colonel John Clibborn, B.A.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 97

MEETING

Held on the 20th of January, 1915, at 20 Hanovkr Square,
W. ; Mr. David J. Scourfield, F.Z.S., Vice-President, in the
Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of December 16, 11)14, were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

An announcement was made of the following Donation received
since the last meeting, and the thanks of the Society were accorded to
the Donor : —

From
Gage (S. H.) Optic Projection The Author.

Mr. Thomas H. Hiscott and Mr. B. Smith were appointed by the
Chairman Scrutineers of the Ballot for the election of Officers and
Council for the ensuing year.

Dr. Shillington Scales announced that the next General Meeting
of the Society would be a " Special Meeting" under By-laws 100 and 101,
for the purpose of adding a By-law forbidding the use by any Fellow of
the letters " F.R.M.S." for any business or professional purposes, a rule
which would strengthen the hands of the Council in any difficulty which
might arise from the indiscriminate use of these letters.

The Annual Report of the Society for the year 1914 was then read
by Dr. Shillington Scales.

REPORT OP THE COUNCIL.

The Council is glad to be able to report the continued prosperity of
the Society during the year 1914.

i'KLLOWS.

Ordinary.— During the year L914, 19 new Fellows have been elected,
whilst 9 have died, 17 have resigned, and one has been removed.

Feb. 11 th, 1915 u

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Honorary. — The Council regrets the loss by death of four Honorary
Fellows, viz. Dr. Albert Grunow, Dr. L. Dippe] of Darmstadt, Ph. Van
Tieghem of Paris, and Professor Weismann of Freiburg.

The List of Fellows now contains the names of 405 Ordinary,
1 Corresponding, 30 Honorary, and SI Ex-officio Fellows, making a
total of 517.

FINANCE.

The Revenue Account shows a balance of income over expenditure
of £163 3s. id.

Compared with last year the income of the Society shows a slight
decrease, but the expenditure has fallen in a greater ratio. This is due
to the decrease in the cost of the Journal, and also in the number of
papers purchased for the Library — both circumstances being attributable
to the war interfering with the supply of foreign periodicals.

During the year, £470 15s. \d. has been invested on Capital
Account, and £8 2s. has been added to Properties Account, by pur-
chase of new furniture.

The value of the Society's securities has been left at the 1913 figure,
and this, with the amount added during the year, makes the Investment
Account up to £2039 15s. 4rf. The Property Account (excluding
Library and Instruments) stands at £88 2s.

The sum of £305 17s. -id. has been therefore taken from the
Reserve Account and added to the Capital Account, making this up to
£2127 17s. id.

The Reserve Account, with the balance of £163 3s. Ad., mentioned
above, now stands at £239 6s. 3d.

JOUENAL.

The papers, eight in number, which are embodied in the Transactions,
have been fully up to the standard of previous years. At the same time,
the Council regrets the paucity of contributions, and would impress upon
the Fellows the importance of contributing original communications for
subsequent publication in the Transactions. Not only are such com-
munications of special interest at the meetings, but it is on their pub-
Lication to the scientific world that the Society depends for the main-
tenance of its prestige. The Summary of Current Researches continues
to be of the same merit as heretofore, but during the latter half of the
year most foreign literature has not been accessible, and the Summaries
have consequently decreased in number.

The Council takes this opportunity of again thanking the Editorial
Staff, which has laboured long and unremittingly on behalf of the
Society and its Journal.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. W

LIBRARY

Daring the past year the Library has been maintained in an efficient
state. Several incomplete journals of little permanent interest have
been disposed of, and the proceeds devoted to instituting a much needed
fund for the binding of periodicals.

The Council notes the increased usefulness of the Library during
1914, as shown by the number of Fellows visiting the rooms or
applying for the loan of books, periodicals, etc., the number of loans
being considerably higher than for many years past, while the Society's
subscription to Lewis' Circulating Library has fully justified its con-
tinuation.

A number of current standard works dealing with Microscopy have
been presented during the year, and also the two following valuable early
editions : —

St. Vincent (M. B. de) Essai d'une Classification des Animaux
microscopiques, 1826. Presented by Mr. John Hopkiuson, F.R.M.S.

Nees ab Esenbeck, Horae Physicae Berolinensis, 1820. Presented
by Mr. Frank Robotham.

The Society has also recently purchased a number of original drawings
of Rotifera by P. H. Gosse. These, together with others already in the
possession of the Society, will, as soon as the necessary work of arrange-
ment is completed, be accessible to the Fellows in an album or. portfolio.

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS.

The instruments and apparatus continue to be in good condition,
and are now suitably housed and displayed. Some progress has also
been made in the compilation of a descriptive catalogue.

During the year 1914, in addition to the following donations which
have been received, an old French Microscope by Joblot has been added
by purchase.

Jan. 21. — Copy in brass of one of Leeuwenhoek's Microscopes.

Presented by Sir Frank Crisp, Bart., F.R.M.S.
May 20. — An early copy of John Cuff's " New Constructed Double

Microscope" with Latin inscription (about 1744).

Presented by Mr. John Sterry.
Nov. 18.— An old portable Microscope, by Cary. Presented by

Mr. E. E. Banham.

CABINET.

The Society's Collection of slides has during the year been reviewed,
thoroughly overhauled, and cleaned, and the catalogue brought up to
date by' the Hon. Curator, Mr. E. J. Sheppard, to whom the Society's
thanks are due.

LOO PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETT.

The Council regrets to note that bnt little interest seems to be taken
in the Cabinet, and hopes that the Fellows will in the future make
more use of the collection of type slides. The following additions haw
been made during the past year : —

Professor Sigmund's Histological Preparations, 20 slides and descrip-
tive texts. Presented by Messrs. Carl Zeiss. London.

Six old ivory sliders of botanical sections. Presented by Mr. T. G.
Taylor.

The number of slides in the Cabinet now amounts to nearly 9000.

MEETINGS.

During 1!H4, nine Ordinary Meetings have been held, and all have
been well attended, but the Annual Conversazione, which is usual ly
held in October, was not held on account of the European War.

The Sectional Meetings have had a very successful year. The
Biological Section, under the Secretaryship of Mr. Scourfield, held
eight meetings, with an average attendance of 20. The Brass and
Glass Section, under the Secretaryship of Mr. Cheshire, held five
meetings, with an average attendance of 10.

Mr. Cyril F. Hill (Hon. Treasurer) then read the Financial State-
ment for the year 1914.

Mr. J. Wilson moved the adoption of the Report of the Council and
the Treasurer's Statement.

He wished to congratulate the Society on the excellence of the Report
of the Council, which from beginning to end was highly satisfactory.

Regarding the Treasurer's statement, there were two items which he
thought required a little explanation for the benefit of the Society.
According to the Secretary's statement there were 500 Fellows in the
Society, and yet the subscriptions only amounted to £696 odd : he would
like to know how it was that the subscriptions fell so far short of the
amount which should be brought in by the number of members belong-
ing to the Society.

The second matter he would like to have explained was in regard to
the item of £143 put down against " Sundry Creditors " on the debit
side of the Balance Sheet, and that of £200 against " Sundry Debtors "
on the other side of the Sheet. It seemed to him that both these items
were too large to go unexplained in the Balance Sheet of the Society.

Mr. C. E. Heath, in seconding the proposal, asked for information
respecting the position of the Society's investments.

Mr. Cyril Hill (Treasurer) replied that, in regard to Mr. Wilson's first

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L02 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

question as to discrepancy between the number of Fellows and the
amounl of their subscriptions, it must be remembered thai a certain
number of Fellows were Life Members, the old original Fellows only
paid a guinea, and foreign and colonial Fellows paid a guinea and

a half.

Referring to the Balance Sheet, the sum "Sundry debtors" was
practically the same as last year, subscriptions owing amounted to about
£90, and £1K» was due for sales of the Journal.

The amount of £143 "Sundry Creditors" was rather more than las!
year : the principal items were, £24 subscriptions paid in advance, £101
due for printing the Journal, etc. Examining the above figures it would
be noted that about £60 more was owing to the Society than was owed
by the Society.

With regard to the value of the Investments, these were taken at
the same value as last account, that value being based on the official
quotations for December 31, 1913.

After this explanation by the Treasurer, the Resolution for the
adoption of the Report of Council and the Treasurer's Statement was
carried unanimously.

Mr. Bruce Capell said he was glad to have been afforded the oppor-
tunity of proposing a hearty vote of thanks to the Honorary Officers of
the Society. The great enjoyment given to members at the various
meetings of the Society, when so many interesting papers, communications
and exhibitions were given, was chiefly owing to the careful and experi-
enced manner in which they were arranged.

Mr. William Gardner said he had very great pleasure in seconding
the proposal, which, having been put to the Meeting, was carried
unanimously.

Dr. Shillington Scales acknowledged the indebtedness of the Council
for the appreciation the Meeting had shown towards their efforts during
the year. He would not detain members that evening by any detailed
account of the work of the Society — in any case the present year would
be an anxious one. The first difficulty at the commencement of the
Session which had confronted them was the stopping of the Conver-
sazione which had been such a marked success during the past few
years ; the Council, however, considered that it was only right to do this
in view of the circumstances of the European War. The Secretaries
anticipated further difficulties in regard to the carrying on of the
Meetings, but he thought all present w T ould agree with him when he
said that so far the present Session had brought forward papers and
communications of much interest, whilst the Meetings were well attended.
The financial position might be considered very satisfactory. There had
been a slight drop in Fellowship during the year, though less than had
been anticipated in view of the circumstances, and when the war was
over it was confidently hoped that the depreciation in numbers would
again be made up.

Mr. Edward J. Sheppard proposed that the best thanks of the
Society be accorded to the Auditors and to the Scrutineers of the Ballot.

Mr. Freshwater seconded the proposal, which was put to the Meeting
and carried unanimously. ,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 103

The Scrutineers having handed in their report of the result of the
Ballot, the Chairman announced that the following Fellows had been
elected as the Officers and Council for the ensuing year:—

President— Prat. Gt. Sims Woodhead, M.A. M.D. LL.D. F.R.S.E., etc.

Vice-Presidents — John Hopkinson, F.L.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S. ; Julius
Rheinberg ; David J. Scorn-field, F.Z.S. ; E. J. Spitta, L.R.C.P. (Lond.)
M.R.C.S. (Bng.).

Treasurer — Cyril F. Hill.

Secretaries— J . W. H. Eyre, M.D. F.R.S.E. ; F. Shillington Scales,
M.A. M.D. B.C. (Cantab.).

Ordinary Members of Council — F. W. Watson Baker ; Frederic J.
Cheshire ; C. Lees Curties ; Arthur Earland ; R. G. Hebb, M.A. M.D.
F.R.C.P. ; Prof. R. T. Hewlett, M.D. F.R.C.P. D.P.H., etc. ; J.Milton
Offord : Robert Paulson ; Percy E. Radley ; Charles F. Rousselet ;
A. W. Sheppard; Charles D. Soar.

Librarian — Percy E. Radley.

Curator of Instruments, etc. — Charles F. Rousselet.

Curator of Slides — Edward J. Sheppard.

Dr. Charles Singer, M.A., then communicated his "Notes on the
History of the Microscope," on the conclusion of which the Chairman
pointed out that the evening's paper on the earliest microscopical
investigations of the past formed a most interesting and valuable
counterpart to that to which they had listened with so much interest and
attention last month, when they had been bidden to look forward to the
Microscope of the future, and he thought the contrast might form the
basis of an interesting discussion. The subject had not, he thought, been
brought before them in quite the same light before. As a rule papers
dealing with the beginnings of microscopy had been on the construction
and use of the Microscopes and lenses themselves, but he was sure that
all would agree that the very early work carried out by the pioneers of
microscopical investigation by means of the instruments at their com-
mand, formed a most interesting side of the question.

Dr. Shillington Scales said he would like to add his thanks to those
of the Chairman to Dr. Singer for his great kindness in giving his
very interesting lecture that evening. He would like to ask Dr. Singer
whether he had seen a paper published in the Journal of the Society
which had been read a few sessions ago by their late President, Dr.
Plimmer, on Leeuwenhoek, dealing with his work and accompanied by
several very interesting illustrations ? He had been struck by the great
interest of the illustrations handed round by Dr. Singer and thought
they would be well worth reproducing in the Journal.

The Society had both a biological and a microscopical point of view,
and he believed that there were few advances in the improvement of
the Microscope with which the Society had not been directly associated.
It had a unique collection of old instruments and prided itself upon
bringing this collection to perfection. He wondered whether Dr. Singer
was familiar with this collection. They were at that present moment

Ill I PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

engaged (under the guidance of Mr. Cheshire and of those who worked
with him) in preparing an illustrated catalogue of the instruments in
their possession, and he was certain that Mr. Cheshire and his colleagues
would only too gladly welcome any collaboration which Dr. Singer might
offer them.

The vote of thanks to Dr. Singer for his paper was carried with
acclamation by all present.

The Chairman announced that the Roll was there ready to be signed
by Fellows who had not already done so.

It was announced that the next Ordinary Meeting would take place
on Wednesday, February 17.

It was further announced that the next Meeting of the Biological
Section would be held in the Society's Rooms on February 3.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. I91!>. PI. II.

JOIJENAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

APRIL, 1915.

TRANASCTIONS ' OF THE SOCIETY.

II. — Notes on the Structure of Test's of Fresh-water Rhizopoda.
By George Herbert Wailes, F.L.S.*

(Read March 17, 1915.)
Plates II and III.

The Rhizopoda are amoeboid animals, and may be classed as
parasitic, fresh-water, or marine, according to their habitat ; a few
of the fresh-water species can live in salt or brackish water.
Under the term " fresh-water " are included terrestial species which
inhabit mosses of all kinds and are capable of enduring more or
less prolonged dessication. They are to be found nearly every-

* Communicated by John Hopkinson, V.P.R.M.S.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 1, 2. — Difflugia bicornis Penarcl. Three-horned variety, x 300. 1. Buccal
view. 2. Side view. Showing a fourth horn placed unsymmetri-
cally between two of the three normal horns.

,, 3,4. — D. bacillariarum var. elegans (Penard) Cash. X 300. 3. Broadview.
4. Narrow view.

,, 5. — Heleopera nodosa Wailes. X 250.

,, 6. — Nebela scutellata Wailes. x 320.

„ 7. — N. dentistoma var. hesperia Wailes. Broad view of test, showing various

scales, plates, etc., incorporated in it. x 300.

,, 8. — Euglypha cristataJjeidy. x 400.

,, 9. — E. scutigera Penard. x 300.

„ 10-12.— E. strigosa (Ehrenb.) Leidy. X 350. 10. Broad view. 11. Narrow-
view. 12. Buccal view.

„ 13,14.— E. armata Wailes. 13. Side view of test, x 300. 14. Detached
spine-bearing scale. X 400.

,, 15. — E. brachiata var. librata Wailes. x 400.

16.— Cyphoderia ampulla Ehrenb. Outline of test. X 200. (The test of
C. trochus var. amphoralis Wailes is of a similar form.)

April 21st, 1915 I

lOfi Transactions of the Society.

where; the sediment and water-plants of every little stream or
pond will yield them more or less plentifully, Sphagnum moss
always provides multitudes of them with a habitat, and the mosses
growing on walls, trees, and even on the pavements of towns
provide shelter for their appropriate secies.

These unicellular animals have i.xovided valuable subjects of
study to biologists, and their life-histories and habits, of which
little is now known, are sure to provide a mine of information to
naturalists in the future ; how such creatures, without any differ-
entiated organs, can build their habitations with such svmmetrv
and marvellous accuracy of workmanship is a question which
cannot fail to strike the most cursory observer.

The sub-class Ehizopoda comprises the orders Amoebina, or
naked forms, and Conchulina, or those furnished with a test ; the
families Arcellida and Euglyphina include the genera whose tests
yield the most interesting results from a microscopical examination.
The size of the tests usually lies between lo/x and 150/^in length,
although specimens up to 500/a do occur. For locating a specimen
in a drop of " material " a ^-in. objective, with a large field, is
most convenient ; for the detailed examination a £-in. objective
is best as a rule, but may often be usefully supplemented by a
|-in. ; for the detailed examination of such tests as those of the
Cyphoderise and of individual scales, etc., a ^-in. oil-immersion
lens is required.

For the modus operandi of collecting and mounting the tests
Penard's paper, " On the Collection and Preservation of Fresh- water
Ehizopoda,"* should be consulted. If drawings are made, a cam era -
lucida should be used to ensure accuracy, and the dimensions
should be checked by measurements of the object itself; micro-
photography unfortunately does not as a rule give good results
unless the tests are flat or parts of them specially prepared.

For the identification of species Cash and Hopkinson (.2) f or
Penard (4) should be consulted ; the latter work embodies nearly
all the information available on the subject.

The Ehizopoda are propagated by three methods :

1. By means of spores which grow into amoeboid individuals

and then construct tests.

2. By " budding."

3. By simple division into two individuals.

Very little is known of the process by which the tests are made in
the first two cases, but the naked animal must of necessity either
secrete its test or search for the materials with which to construct
it. In the third case the process can frequently be seen in some of
its stages, but probably has never been observed in its entirety,

* Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, 1907.

t The figures in brackets refer to the Bibliography at the end of the paper. .

Structure of Tests of Fresh-water Bhizopoda. 107

which may perhaps extend over a period of some days. Previous
to division in many species an accumulation can be observed of
the necessary scales or disks, etc., required for the construction of
the daughter test, these being stored without any apparent order in
the body of the parent ; when grains of sand or other extraneous
materials are employed they are occasionally to be seen collected
around the aperture of the parent's test.

The new test is commenced by building its aperture adjoining
that of the old test, and so course by course in rings until it is
completed. In cases where scales are employed, e.g. in the genus
Euglypha, the special aperture-scales are affixed first, and then the
body-scales and spine-scales or spines, until on its completion we
see two similar tests joined together by their apertures ; the
animal then divides, a moiety occupying each test, and on their
separating two mature and similar animals are the result. Care
must be taken not to mistake two animals conjugating for the
above, as the position of the two tests is similar.

Ehizopoda tests can be grouped according to their structure in
four categories, viz., those composed of:

1. A skin or shell more or less homogeneous.

2. Extraneous materials collected by the animal.

3. Extraneous materials modified by the animal.

4. Materials, usually scales or disks of various forms, secreted

by the animal itself.

In the first group the tests may vary from a thin flexible
pellicle, which is a mere hardening of the ectoplasm, to a firm and
comparatively thick shell, such as those of the Arcellsz.

Although hardly within this eatagory, the case of Amoeba pilosa
Cash (2) is well worth examination ; unfortunately this curious
species seems to be of rare occurrence. The plasma flows in the
usual amoeboid manner, but is covered with fine colourless hair-like
cils which appear on the lobular expansions as they are formed,
and are absorbed again when they are withdrawn.

Cochliopodium bilimbosum (Auerbach) Leicly and other species
of that genus have flexible pellicles, colourless and transparent,
but in edge view, that is, in section, appear to be divided by trans-
verse strise at equal distances apart, whilst in face view a careful
examination reveals numerous punctuations, or rather minute beads
arranged in a series of lines radiating from the crown of the test.
Penard (4) thinks these markings may represent little pellets or
disks of a firmer substance than the rest of the test ; they are not
distinguishable in very young individuals. Careful treatment of
tests with a solvent of various degrees of strength might elucidate
the question.

Species of the genus Gorycia have remarkably thin flexible
envelopes, the free edges of which, around the aperture, resemble

i 2

108 Transactions of fhe Society .

diaphanous elastic curtains in some cases; although of such a
diaphanous nature the crown of the test of C.fiava (Greet!) Penan 1
is studded with small particles of extraneous materials affixed to
its outer surface, and in the case of C.fiava var. coronata (Penard)
Wailes, has a projecting ring or circular fold of membrane around
the crown of the test ; whilst C. aculeata (Greeff) Averintzeff has
a circlet of stout spines.

The tests of most species of Arcclla appear punctate under a
low power, but a higher magnification gives them the appearance
of being formed of circular or hexagonal disks cemented together
(IT. Ill, fig. 1). Penard (4), with his usual accuracy, shows that
the test of A. vulgaris Ehrenb. consists of a thin chitinous plate
covered on one side with a network of low ribs forming shallow
hexagonal cells, the free edges of these ribs becoming thickened,
this thickening increasing with the age of the animal, until from
a girder-like section they eventually coalesce at their free edges,
and the fully mature test finally consists of two plates joined
together by a network of ribs, and it is owing to the spaces
between them as seen through the translucent plates or coverings
that the tests have a punctate appearance. As the tests are only

EXPLANATION OP PLATE III.

Eig. 1. — Surface of portion of an Arcella test, x about 2500.
,, 2-4. — Section of the same. 2. When immature. 3. When older. 4. Mature

test, x about 2500.
,, 5. — Section of test of Arcella artocrea Leidy, through " pores " around the

aperture, x 2000.
,, 6. — Silicious elements of test of Nebela griseola Penard. x about 800.

,, 7, 8. — Portions of test of N. vitrsea Penard. x 1000. (After Penard.)
,, 9. — Side view of aperture of Euglypha ciliata Ehrenb. x 1000.

„ 10. — Body-scale of E. crenulata Wailes. x 1000.
„ 11. — Ditto of E. crenulata var. minor Wailes. x 1000.
,, 12. — Aperture-scales of E. alveolata Dujardin. x 1000.

13. Ditto of E. Ixvts Perty. x 1000.

14. Ditto of E. rotunda Wailes. x 3000.
„ 15. Ditto of E. crenulata Wailes. x 1000.
,, 16. Ditto of E. compressa Carter. X 1000.

,, 17. — Portion of test of Nebela scutellata Wailes, showing the small strength-
ening plates over the joints of the larger plates, x 1000.

,, 18. -Spine-scale of Euglypha crenulata Wailes. x 800.

„ 19-24. — Spines of various forms of E. compressa Carter, x 1000. 23. Normal
form. 20, 22. Narrow edge views.

,, 25, 26. — Apex of test of E. mucronata Leidy. x 1000. 25. Narrow view.
26. Broad view.

,, 27-29. — Portions of tests of Gyphoderia ampulla Ehrenb. x 2000.

,, 30. — Portion of a test of the same, x 4000.

,, 31. Ditto ditto of C. ampulla var. major Penard ; a rare form from
Yorkshire, x 2000.

,, 32, 83. — Portion of a normal test of the same variety, showing test in
section (32), and a portion of the surface with a line of fracture (33).
X 4000.

,, 34-36. — Portions of two tests of C. trochus var. amphoralis Wailes, and
section (35). x 2000.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. 1015. PI. III.

22 23 A 1 *

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Structure of Tents of Fresh-water Mhizopoda-. 109

about 1 /j, to 2 fi in total thickness, a magnification of x 1500 or
more is necessary for theii examination, which presents a good
many technical difficulties. Cushman and Henderson* give micro-
photographs of Areella tests, together with a description of their
methods of procedure ; there is, however, room for further investi-
gation. The test of A. mitrata Leidy offers perhaps the least
difficulty in examination owing to its exceptional thickness and
large cells ; the species is, however, rare in Britain, although plen-
tiful in the United States. (See PL III, figs. 2-4;

Centrofyxis aculeata (Ehrenb.) Stein has a stout chitinous test
more or less overlaid with particles of extraneous material. Under
a moderate magnification the envelope, where visible, appears
punctate, but these markings are not really perforations but small
plates or disks embedded in the chitin ; by treating the test with
a solvent, such as caustic potash of carefully regulated strength,
they might possibly be isolated and their exact nature ascertained.
These tests are furnished with a varying number of hollow chitinous
spines, the small extremities of which are frequently plugged by
minute splinters or pointed grains of silica, a peculiarity which is
even more pronounced in the case of the spines of Dijfiuyia echinu-
lata Penard (6), the only known species of that genus bearing
spines on its test.

Many tests possess what appear to be pores, e.g. around the
apertures of several species of Arccllie and on the necks of some
Xebelm, but if the test be broken and examined in section it will
often be found that these " pores " are in reality minute hemi-
spherical nodules on either the outer or inner surface (PI. Ill, fig. 5) ;
true pores can be recognized as a rule in broken sections, or may
be revealed by minute bubbles of gas escaping through them when
the tests are treated with acid or otherwise manipulated. Trans-
ference from water to oil of cloves sometimes reveals them.

Group 2 contains a large proportion of the fresh-water species
of Ehizopoda ; the tests are similar in principle to those of the
familiar caddis-worm, being constructed of particles of sand or
other material cemented on to a pellicle, and the form of the
finished structure is characteristic in each species.

A drop of sediment from any pond or stream, or a squeezing
from a moist piece of moss, is nearly sure to provide examples of
one or more species of Dijflugia, which may be taken as typical of
this group ; they are easily kept alive for observation if supplied
with fresh water now and then, and with patience an observer may
have the opportunity of seeing the process of construction of a
new test ; in any case, if powdered glass of various colours be
provided, any new tests will be seen to have these coloured grains
incorporated in them.

* Amer. Nat., xl. (1906).

110 Transactions of the Society.

Dijflugia oblonga Ehrenb. may be taken as a type of the tests
in this group ; it is more or less pear-shaped with a circular
aperture at the smaller end, the outlines are as regular as the
selection of fairly evenly-sized sand-grains will permit, the inner
surface is smooth and the interior is nearly entirely occupied by
the animal.

The tests of many species of Ditflugia have pockets forming
horn-like extensions ; these may vary in number from a single
terminal one to a dozen, as in D. corona Wallich, and these horns
are occasionally terminated by a sharp splinter or grain of sand.
They are, when normal in number, placed symmetrically on the
test, but additional ones are apt to be inserted unevenly, as in
D. bicornis Penard (PI. II, figs. 1, 2).

A very common material used to form tests consists of diatom
frustules ; a few species such as I). bacilli/era Penard and D. bacil-
lariarum Perty (PI. II, figs. 3,4), employ them almost exclusively ;
many others intermix them with other materials.

The tests in this group have usually circular apertures, occasion-
ally they are elliptical, and several species have lobed or crenulated
openings with a marked tendency to variation in the number of
lobes. Thus, in Dijflugia gramen Penard and D. lobostoma Leidy,
three or four is the normal number, but five or six are not rare ;
D. oviformis Cash has three to five, and D. corona Wallich twelve
to twenty. In connexion with this kind of aperture it is curious
that in Europe the Arccllm rarely depart from the circular form
of aperture, whilst in North America the crenulated form frequently
occurs in several species.

The genus Pontigulasia presents us with a different type of
aperture ; the test proper is more or less oviform and similar in
material and appearance to that of a Dijjlugia, but over the small
end, which has one or more openings, is fixed a short conical tube
contracted at the line of junction, the outer end forming the visible
aperture. The orifice or orifices of the test proper are therefore pro-
vided with a small vestibule or anti-chamber. Pontigulasia brgophila
Penard has a single circular inner orifice ; P. spiralis Khumbler
has two such ; P. incisa Ehumbler and P. compressa (Carter) Cash
have two also, but formed by a narrow bridge-piece placed across
a circular opening ; P. vas (Leidy) Schouteden has a single inner
orifice placed eccentrically, and usually a second one opposite which
is closed or covered over by a translucent diaphragm. The junction
of the buccal tube with the body of the test is very frequently
strengthened by some large quartz-grains, cemented around it at
equal distances apart.

The tests of the genus Lesquereusia are similar except that their
form is spheroidal and the outer tube is affixed tangentially ; in
some instances it is so short as to merge into the general outlines
of the test, and in L. mimetica Penard (6') does so completely.

Structure of Tests of Fresh-water JRhkopoda. Ill

The examination of these structures entails careful manipula-
tions, being opaque in air or water ; immersion in oil of cloves or
balsam, which renders them translucent, is necessary before the
internal structure is distinguishable, and then close scrutiny from
every point of view and careful lighting are requisite.

The curved vermiform rods forming the test of Lesquereusia
spiralis Biitschli, and similar ones often incorporated in the test of
Nebela griseola Penard (8), may be formed from diatom frustules,
but they are so reduced in diameter and bent into all manner of
curves that we can only conjecture their origin in many cases
(PL III, fig. 6).

The tests in Group 3 comprise those which are formed, either
wholly or in part, of extraneous materials modified by the animal ;
these materials are usually silicious, such as sand-grains, frustules
of diatoms, and sometimes the scales or plates of other tests,
although these are usually employed without modification. The
walls of the test when completed resemble a mosaic, the tessera
fitting closely together and adjusted so that no large intervals are
left ; even between those of most varied forms they are cemented
together with a chitinous cement. The walls are of equal thickness
or made thicker in those parts where extra strength is required, and
are finished off to a smooth surface both inside and out.

Of the tests made partially as above, some species of Hdeopera
provide good examples ; H. petricola Leidy, a common species, has
a test made of sand-grains which are smoothed off around the
aperture and anterior part of the test, but near the crown larger
grains usually project and the surface is rough ; the test of H. nodosa
Wailes (9) shows this tendency carried to an extreme, the apex
consisting of a nodular mass of grains of quartz (PI. II, fig. 5)
which must, one would think, greatly impede free locomotion. The
cementing medium is highly resistant to the action of acids,
and probably consists of chitin mixed with very fine particles of
silica. There is also a general tendency among most species of this
genus for the tests to assume an amethystine tint which is very
brilliant in such species as H. rosea Penard and H. petricola var.
ametlufstea Penard ; the shades vary from pale violet to a rose-red,
but the colours usually seen are similar to those produced by oxide
of manganese ; the colouring matter is probably confined to the
cementing material with which the quartz-grains are perhaps coated'.
In the case of Awerinzewia cyclostoma (Pen.) Schouteden, this is
evidently the case, as the test is usually composed of rather large
grains of a chalky white tint embedded in a violet-coloured matrix.

The genus Nebela contains many abundant and widely dis-
tributed species with tests composed of modified extraneous
materials, and of plates or disks which appear to be secreted by
the animal itself, or obtained from some other test; sometimes it
is possible to recognize the exact species from which some of the

112 Transactions of the Society.

materials are derived; the spine- and aperture-scales of Euglypha
alveolata and E.armata are not infrequent, and tests of Nebelaequi-
calceus Leidy have been observed containing the body-scales of
Euglypha crenulqta var. minor (9). The oblong and rod-shaped

plates so often seen in these tests usually afford no indication of
their origin, but occasionally close inspection will reveal traces of
the stria? characteristic of diatom frustules, and it is not unlikely
that diatoms are a source from which the necessary material is
largely obtained. A few species, e.g. Nehcla scutellata Wailes
and N. tropica Wailes (9), employ square plates in forming then-
tests, sometimes with the addition of about 5 p.c. to 10 p.c. of
circular disks, all of which are probably secreted by the animal
itself, unless they have been obtained from old tests of the same
species. A curious feature in the test of JY. scutellata is that many
of the points of junction of the plates are reinforced by the applica-
tion over them of small covering plates of suitable size and shape,
usually rectangular, sometimes circular, oval, or triangular (PI. Ill,
fig. 17). The larger plates are arranged in more or less orderly
diagonal series. The test of JSf. vitrcea Penard has also occasionally
a similar arrangement of small covering plates (PL III, tigs. 7, 8).

Nebela barbata Leidy, recorded two or three times only from
the British Isles, but not uncommon in North America, is remark-
able for the fact that its test is thickly covered with fine, colour-
less, hair-like cils 10-18// in length, and less than 0*5/* in
diameter ; they are insoluble in cold sulphuric acid, and become
invisible in oil of cloves, glycerin, and balsam.

The tests in Group 4 belong mostly to the family Euglyphina,
and usually consist of transparent, silicious scales or plates elliptical
in form, arranged more or less symmetrically, the edges overlapping
and cemented together. The genus Quadrula has rectangular
plates forming the tests, and the genus Cyphoderia is characterized
by the use of small disks. In all these cases the materials for
the test have to be secreted by the animal itself, and it is of fre-
quent occurrence to find individuals whose bodies enclose numbers
of scales, etc., ready to be used in the formation of a new test.
The genus Euglypha provides some of the most interesting and
easily procurable examples of this group, a " squeezing " from
any tuft of damp moss being nearly sure to provide numerous
specimens, of which E. ciliata Ehrenb. may serve as the type. Its
test is oviform or pyriform, compressed, with an elliptical aperture,
it is from 40 /i to 90 fx in length, and is usually furnished with
numerous short spines around its edge as seen in broad view ; the
aperture is bordered by about eight to ten scales, which have a
projecting point or tooth on the centre of their free edges (PI. Ill,
fig. 9) ; all the other scales of the test are elliptical, and arranged
regularly in alternating longitudinal rows ; the spines are circular

Structure . of Tests of Fresh-iaater Bhizopoda. 113

in section, tapering to a sharp point, and affixed to the scales where
they overlap. As the scales are arranged in longitudinal rows, it
follows that there is always an equal number of scales in any
transverse section of the test, and, therefore, the scales in the
broadest part of the test are the widest, and those at the crown the
narrowest ; they are all of the same length. If there are eight
aperture-scales there will be sixteen rows of scales, with, say, ten
scales in each row, making some 160 in all, a few being usually
omitted at the apex, and alb or nearly all, of these are formed by
the parent preparatory to building the test, and are stored with no
apparent order within its plasma. The question naturally arises
how it is able to sort out and affix each of these in its appropriate
position ; even if the body-scales are made narrow and widened
to suit the position in each case, the aperture-scales must be
selected, for they are often distinguishable among those stored up
ready for use, together with the spines which are subsequently
placed in position on the outside of the test. The process of
building such a test has never been observed in its entirety, but it
is to be hoped that the good fortune of some observer endowed
with the necessary time and patience will soon enable it to be
fully described.

As a rule the body-scales of Euglypha tests are all very similar,
being elliptical or circular in form, but four species have scales
which are quite characteristic in each case ; the test of E. scutigera
Penard (8) has heart-shaped, or rather shield-shaped scales (PI. II.
fig. 9) ; those of E. crenulata Wailes (.9) are similar, but the base
or point of the shield is truncate and waved with three projection s
(PI. Ill, fig. 10), and those of its var. minor Wailes (9) are slightly
different in form with only one projection at the base (PL III,
fig. 11), whilst the scales of E. aspera Penard have projecting
thorn -like points on the upper part of each.

On the other hand, the scales which border the apertures of
the tests are characteristic in every species, the variations consist-
ing in the number and shape of the teeth or points indenting their
free edges, also in their differences of size, thickness, and curva-
ture, thus rendering it possible to assign even an isolated aperture-
scale to the species to which it belongs. In examining these
scales on a test, care must be taken that their true shape is seen,
which owing to their curvature cannot be done when the test is
lying in a normal position, but the aperture has to be raised up
until the points of the scales lie in the plane of vision ; in the case
of small tests a considerable magnification and careful lighting arc
needed.

The spines with which many species of Euglypha arm their
tests show considerable variety, both in shape and method of
attachment. They tall into two groups: (1) those which are

114 Transactions of the Society :

attached to the outside of the test; and (2) those formed by a
modification and extension of the body-scales.

In the first group, containing four species, the spines of E. ciliata
and E. strigosa (Ehrenb.) Leidy (PI. II, figs. 10-12), are circular in
section and taper to a point, with bases cemented to the test ; the
spines of E.filifera Penard are similar, but longer, few in number
and spaced at equal distances apart on a plane passing through the
longitudinal axis of the test ; at the base of each is a small hemi-
spherical nodule into which the spine is fixed, its base being
somewhat enlarged, thus forming a kind of ball-and-socket joint,
enabling the spine to be bent considerably in any direction without
breaking away from the test ; the spines of the tests of E. compressa
Carter (PI. Ill, figs. 19-24), and of Placocysta spinosa Leidy are
attached in a similar manner. It should, however, be noted that
it requires a magnification of 1000 or more and favourable condi-
tions to reveal this structure, and possibly the movement of the
spines may in many cases be due to their being forcibly bent at
their base. In the case of the two last-mentioned species the
spines are flattened and usually lanceolate, but show considerable
variation of form in different individuals.

In the second group certain scales are prolonged into spines of
variable length ; they are usually either around the upper part of
the test or form a tuft or crest at its apex, as in E. cristata
(PI. II, fig. 8). Euglypha brachiata Leidy has a test noticeable for
the long spines originating near the aperture, which are circular
in section, tapering gradually to a point ; they are usually two or
four in number, but occasionally so many as six or eight are
present. In the test of its var. librata Wailes (9) they originate
about half way up the test and are flattened at the points,
which resemble oar-blades (PI. II, fig. 15) ; their total length is
about 35 /x with a diameter of about 1 fx, widening to 2*5/xat
the free extremity.

Euglypha mucronata Leidy has usually a single spine placed at
the apex of the test, the terminal scales fitting closely together
around its base (PI. Ill, figs. 25, 2(3), but if any interstice remains
a small transverse diaphragm is formed just below it ; the spine
lies normally in line with the axis of the test, and to ensure this
is bent the requisite amount close to the scale which bears it.

In the genus Cyphoderia a distinct type of test is found, flask-
shaped, with a curved neck ; under a moderate magnification it
appears densely punctate, but under higher powers its composite
structure is plainly visible. Two distinct types of structure occur,
one formed of small flat disks cemented together at their edges,
and the other of imbricated circular scales ; these disks or scales
are often to be seen within the tests of individuals collected in
readiness for the building of a new test. C. ampulla Ehrenb.

Structure- of Tests of Fresh-ivater Rhizopoda. 1 1 5

(PI. II, fig. 16) may be taken as typical of the first group. The
small disks of which the test is formed are from 1 • 5 /jl to 2 ■ 5 //, in
diameter and 1 • 5 fi to 2 yu, in thickness. They are affixed to a very
fine pellicle which lines the interior of the test, and are arranged
in several different ways (PI. Ill, figs. 27-29) ; they may lie closely
together in alternating or in parallel rows, or they may be separated
from each other by a distance equal to about one-third of their
diameter, in which case bands of darker-coloured cementing
material may usually be discerned joining each disk to its neigh-
bours (PI. Ill, fig. 30). In the majority of tests all the disks are
circular, but they may also be all oval, or circular and oval disks
may be mixed.

Whether these differences in the structure of the tests are
inherited or merely individual variations is not known, but more
than two different variations of the test are seldom found in the
same gathering, and very often the tests from one locality are all
similar.

0. ampulla var. major Penard (4) 1S distinguished from the
type by the presence of six (sometimes twelve) small pores around
each disk of the test (PL III, fig. 33). These pores are about ■ 5 jjl
in diameter and usually circular ; they are filled by a chitinous
material more soluble in acid than the rest of the test.

Cyphoderia trochus Penard (4) an(1 its varieties (8) are charac-
terized by their tests being formed of small circular disks which
are convex on both sides and overlap each other ; they are arranged
in parallel rows ; the amount of imbrication varies in different
individuals, and even in different parts of the same test, being
greatest where the diameter of the test is least. The disks are
4c jx to 5 fM in diameter, and distinguishable under a moderate
magnification. These tests are easily examined if a portion be
broken off and mounted in a fairly liquid balsam, so that it can be
flattened out by pressure on the cover-glass ; an oil-immersion
objective can then be used with advantage.

The various tests to which attention has been drawn in these
notes represent only a few of the species of fresh-water Ehizopoda,
many of which can be collected during a country walk or holiday
excursion. The beauty of the designs and the perfection of work-
manship expended on these little homes, together with their
permanence when mounted, should render them favourite objects
with microscopists, whilst for those who possess the requisite time
and patience to keep the living animals under observation there is
the incentive that at present their habits and modes of life offer an
almost unworked field of study, and the naturalist interested in the
problems of instinct, reason, and heredity is sure to gain, from
the study of these minute and primitive members of the animal
kingdom, information tending towards their solution.

116 Transactions of the Society.

Bibliography.

1. Brown, J. M. — Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxx. (1910), and xxxii. (1911).

2. Cash, J., & J. Hopkinson — The British Fresh-water Rhizopoda. (Ray

Soc.) i. and ii. (1905 and 1908) ; iii. in the press.

3. Leidy, Dr. J. — The Fresh-water Rhizopoda of North America. Monogr.

U.S. Geol. Survey, xii. (1879).

4. Penard, Dr. E. — Faune Rhizopodique du bassin du Leinan (Geneve,

1902).

5. ,, ,, Collecting and Mounting Rhizopods. Journ. Quekett

Micr. Club, x. (1907).

6. „ ,, On Some Rhizopods from Sierre Leone. Journ.

Quekett Micr. Club, xi. (1911).

7. ,, ,, Brit. Antarctic Exped. Report I, pt. 6 (1911).

8. Wailes, G. H., & Dr. E. Penard— Clare Island Survey. Proc. Royal

Irish Acad., xxxi. pt. 65 (1911).

9. Wailes, G. H.— Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxxii. (1912 and 1913).

10. West, G. S.— Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxviii. (1901), and xxix. (1903).

117

III. — A New Mitotic Structure disclosed as the Result of

New Technique.

By E. Sheppakd, F.E.M.S.

(Bead March 17, 1915.)
Plate IV. and Pig. 15.

For some time past I have been experimenting with different
stains and staining processes, in order, if possible, to obtain
further knowledge relating to various mitotic structure, little
anticipating at the commencement of my work that my efforts,
and the comparatively few trials which I made, would so soon be
rewarded. From the outset my object was to increase the stain-
ing power of the spindle-fibres and other archoplasmic structure
that might be present in the vegetable cell.

I was of opinion that if this could be achieved, and any im-
provements upon the results obtained from present-day technique
achieved, the best line on which to proceed was to use mordants
suitable to the different stains with which I was about to experi-
ment.

It is not necessary for the purpose of this paper to describe the
various single and combination staining baths with which I ex-
perimented, but I may mention that the majority gave poor results,
and others no better, if as good, as those obtained with standard
formula?.

My best results have been obtained with the mordanted aniline
dyes used in conjunction with Heidenhain's iron-hrematoxylin
method.

With this combination carefully and successfully applied, a
single trial will fully convince the worker what wonderful contrast
and magnificent crisp definition may be obtained. There are
doubtless many other aniline dyes which may be similarly worked
in conjunction with Heidenhain's iron-hrematoxylin process, and
possibly may give even more gratifying results than those which
I have already obtained, and open up a wide range of work ; to
this I hope to return when time permits.

For the present, though, I have been experimenting for but a
short time with this special branch of cytological technique, and
have confined my investigation entirely to the bringing out of
mitotic structure in the vegetable cell ; the results have been so
pleasing and startling that I have felt compelled to write a short

1 L8 Transactions of the Society.

account of my results and to draw special attention to a structure,
not hitherto described, which it has helped me to disclose.

In working with this process I have used several well-tried
aniline dyes, which in most cases have given satisfactory results,
but so far none have given such striking and gratifying results as
those obtained by the use of methyl-blue in combination with
Heidenhain's iron-luematoxylin.

As yet, the method has been tried upon not very thin sections
of vegetable tissue only, and upon one subject {Lil. auratum). I
have repeated the process several times, but each time with equally
successful results, the new structure being so pronounced that I
feel sure if I had had other similar material of different species at
my command to be treated in a like manner, the same structure
would be brought into view.

The following is a short description of my methods : —

Paraffin sections (15/* to 20/x) of the above-mentioned material,
fixed in Flemming's strong solution, are made to adhere to the
slide or cover-glass (preferably the latter), either by the water, or
one of the modifications of Meyer's albumin process. I use six
drops of Meyer's albumin to one ounce of tap-water

After the removal of the paraffin, the sections are brought down
to water in the usual manner, and finally washed in distilled water.
The sections on the cover-glass are now mordanted for about
fifteen minutes in a 1 per cent watery solution of permanganate of
potash, and then lightly rinsed in distilled water and placed in a
strong watery solution of methyl-blue, where they are allowed to
remain at least over-night — twelve hours or a little more will do
no harm. They should then be well washed for a few moments in
one or two changes of distilled water, mordanted in a 3 per cent
solution of iron alum and stained by Heidenhain's hematoxylin.
I give not less than six hours in the iron alum and from twelve to
twenty-four hours in a 0*5 per cent watery solution of haemat-
oxylin.

The delicate part of the work now commences, that of differen-
tiation ; and it is not at all easy to lay down any fixed rules or
times to ensure the success of this, the most important part of the
technique.

Carried too far, or insufficiently done, the particular section or
series on the cover-glass is spoilt and may be cast aside at once.
I am unfortunately bound to admit that although judgment must
be used in this matter, there is always a fair amount of chance in
hitting off the right degree of density.

The black stain of the iron-hrematoxylin completely masks the
initial methyl-blue stain, and the difficulty of obtaining the correct
point of differentiation of the iron-hseniatoxylin stain when that
part of the process is nearing completion is greatly increased by
the deep blue coloration which soon comes into play as the black

A New Mitotic Structure. By E. Sheppard.

119

stain is being discharged by the second bath in the iron solution.
This latter should be about one-sixth to one-eighth of the strength
of the mordant, in order that it may be slow in action. Take
plenty of time and use careful judgment, examining the sections
from time to time under the Microscope. When satisfied that
the correct stage has been reached, wash carefully in gently
running tap-water for about a quarter of an hour to twenty
minutes. The sections on the cover-glass are now dipped once
or twice in upgrade alcohols 30, 50, 70, 90 p.c, differentiating the
methyl-blue in the last grade of spirit when necessary. This must
be done very carefully and to a great nicety, and under a not less
than ^-in. objective.

This latter remark applies equally when the differentiation of
the hematoxylin is being effected.

Upon the completion of the differentiation, the sections are
transferred direct into oil terpineol and allowed to remain about
10 minutes, or until perfectly cleared, and then mounted in

Fig. 15.

paroleine. Although the methyl-blue stain is not permanent in
paroleine, used as the mountant, it lasts much longer than it does
in balsam. This is the first instance that has yet come under my
notice, since using paroleine as a mountant, in which it has failed
to preserve or retain an aniline dye.

There are doubtless many microscopists who would follow
some branch of cytological research, were there not an almost
general impression that such work requires much skill and delicate
manipulation, which deters them from taking up the work.

Surely all branches of microscopical technique, manipulation,
etc., and the interpretations to be drawn from the same, must of
necessity require due care and skill, but certainly cytology makes
no demands that should deter many who would like to enter this
field from so doing, and I trust that the above description of my
method is lucid enough to stimulate would-be workers to action,
not to repel them.

Although many points regarding microscopical technique and
manipulation are somewhat difficult of explanation in a written

L20 Transactions of the Society.

paper, ami may appear to many insufficiently trustworthy and
simple to follow, I would emphasize the statement that it only
requires a worker to make a start in order to convince himself
that this is certainly not always the case. Here we certainly have
an important method and subject, and I feel sure that anyone who
will follow them up will be amply rewarded.

In giving the description of the newly disclosed structure to
which I have already referred, I find it difficult to decide on a
name or term to assign to it.

Up to the present, for want of a more applicable or appropriate
term, I have made use of the word "structure," but now, for the
purpose of this paper, I shall use the term " chromatin extensions."

In order to fully understand these chromatic extensions and
appreciate their possible value, and the part they may play in pro-
ducing and controlling certain of the movements of the chromosomes,
it is important that we should make ourselves familiar with the
relation which the chromosomes and spindle fibres bear to each
other, the theories concerning these structures which have at
different times been put forward, and their various actions described
at length, and the now accepted part played in the process of
mitosis by the spindle fibres.

In connexion with these points, I would recommend those
sufficiently interested in the subject to make a careful study of the
plates given in Strasburger's "Practical Botany," translated by
W. Hillhouse, M.A., etc., 1908 edition, pp. 442, 461, 463.

Although a little diagrammatic in one or two instances, they
enable one to obtain a clear idea of the correct relations and
position of the chromosomes and spindle fibres at metakinesis as
well as graduating earlier and later stages.

It is generally believed by cytologists, and I think rightly so,
that during metakinesis, as well as a little before and after the
metakinetic stage, the chromosomes stain at their best, i.e. most
intensely. Hence, when this is reinforced by my special method
(as given above) of treating vegetable sections, not only the
chromatin material is brought into a still further improved con-
dition to receive stain (apart from its own specificity in this respect),
but also — and here I claim a good advance upon former technique
— the archoplasmic structure spindle fibres are also brought into a
more favourable condition for taking up the stain.

As is well known, it is most difficult to get such structures to
react with any kind of stain, and when they do, the amount of
stain absorbed is so slight that it is scarcely appreciable.

It is recognized also that there may be two modes by which
the chromosomes split or divide into two quite equal parts. I
allude here to the splitting which takes place immediately following
the definite arrangement of the chromosomes forming the equatorial
cell plate (metakinesis), resulting after their reassembling at the

A New Mitotic Structure. By E. Sheppard. 121

poles in the daughter nuclei, and it will not he out of place if I refer
briefly to these two methods. The first, and certainly by far the
most frequent, is that in which the splitting commences at the tip
of the TJ- or V-shaped chromosome, and gradually proceeds down
the entire length of the two arms or phalanges. The other method
is that in which the splitting takes place in exactly the opposite
direction ; starting at the extreme ends of the arms or phalanges
and proceeding up their entire length and finishing at the tip of
the U or V. It is understood, of course, that the chromosomes
are seen presenting their curved or pointed, and not the bifurcated,
ends to the spindle fibres.

When the two newly separated ends of each pair of chromo-
somes make their appearance and are just moving apart from one
another, one would quite legitimately ask the question, "What is
the initiative force and the action in this process of separation ? "

To this question we must, to be honest with ourselves, answer,
" We do not know," and I can only refer again to the few remarks
bearing upon this point I made in the earlier part of this paper, in
which I refer to the different theories which have been put forward
by various authorities.

I claim, however, as the result of my work and the application
of my methods, that although I am no nearer being able to state
what this initiative mechanism or force is in the process of separa-
tion and splitting of the chromosomes, I have been able, as
careful consideration of my drawings and photographs of those
small " chromatin extensions " shows, clearly brought them into
view, as the result of successful staining of the spindle fibres ; and
it may materially help those who are in a better position than am
I, to theorize as to their possible value or purpose in one of the
most important processes of mitoses.

These chromatin extensions are first seen when the ends of
the chromosomes have separated but a very short distance from
each other at their apices, and the separated ends have a slight
but appreciable tendency to turn away from one another towards
their respective "poles. As separation proceeds, they become more
apparent and pronounced. On careful examination of figs. 1 to 6,
PL IV, and abc, text-fig. 15 (drawings from actual cells) small
bead-like extensions are seen situated at the extreme tip of the
U or V chromosomes. They are very small, and consequently may
be easily overlooked unless careful searching be made ; a ^-in.
oil-immersion is essential for their correct determination. They
take the black stain of the iron-hpeniatoxylin, and with the same
intensity as the rest of the chromosome. An important point, and
one well worthy of consideration, is that that portion of the spindle
fibres (the whole of which stain a beautiful blue) in immediate
contact with a bead-like extension of the chromosomes, stains
much more deeply than that which is more remote, and we here

April 21st, 1915 K

1 22 Transactions of the Society.

have the appearance of specialized ends. Another remarkable
feature is that in suitable cases (see figs. I) and l'») it will be readily
seen that the spindle fibres of each bundle, as they near the apex
of each chromosome, converge, not to a single extremity, as lias
hitherto been depicted and described, but to a double end, one for
each " chromatin extension " with which they are in apparent
contact, though they do not, I believe, actually fuse.

In conclusion, it seems important from the foregoing to realize
that due consideration should be given to the three following
points of great interest : —

1. The chromatin extensions to be seen at the V-shaped
extremity of each chromosome.

2. The double end of each bundle of spindle fibres, one directed
to each chromatin extension.

3. The extra staining capacity of the ends of these spindle
fibres.

It would seem, perhaps, inadvisable to draw too hasty a con-
clusion as to which of these three very important details demands
most attention, when considering what bearing they have upon or
what their relation may be to the mechanism of mitosis.

I do not wish to pose for one moment as a physicist in the strict
sense of the word, but I do feel inclined to ascribe the greatest
weight and importance to No. 3 of the above items.

Relying not unduly upon the results of many of our present-
day staining reactions, it may with safety be asserted that if a
portion of a structure or tissue can be acted upon by a stain or
staining process with a greater intensity, and also offer a greater
resistance to differentiation or extraction of this stain, after the
application of suitable means for this purpose, than the surrounding
tissues, one may assume with some degree of certainty that the
tissue so reacting possesses some special (may I say vital or
organic ?) functional capacity.

That the portion of the spindle fibres above mentioned does
react in the specialized manner just referred to the methods given
is, I think, conclusively demonstrated ; and it but remains for us to
attempt to work out the important question, " What force, vitality,
or biochemical action can be hidden in so concentrated and
minute a portion of the spindle fibre structure seen in mitosis ? "

That the items Xo. 1 and 2 also possess undoubted significance
must also be accepted, and each must latter receive its full mead of
consideration.

JOURN. R. MICR. SOC. [915, PI. IV

9*>

X

-*

D

London Etching Co., Ltd,, Eng.

SUMMAKY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(PEINCIPALLY INVERTEBEATA AND CRYPTOaAMIA),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBEATA.
a. Embryology, f

Determination of Sex. J — L. Doncaster has discussed the more
important lines of evidence which bear on the problem of sex determina-
tion. Sex, although it is almost universally found, cannot be said with
certainty to be a necessary attribute of living things, and its real nature
remains an apparently impenetrable mystery. In the rare cases where
it seems to have disappeared, the organism thrives to all appearance just
as well without it. Perhaps the nearest approach to the deeper problems
of sex is through the study of its determination.

The problems involved are concerned with existence of two distinct
sexes and the causes which determine whether an egg will develop into
a male or into a female, the comparative regularity with which they are
produced, and the developmeut of secondary sexual characters.

In fertilization we get almost our only definite indication of the
ultimate nature and function of sex, for it implies the equal mingling
in every individual of sets of inherited characters derived from two
parents. Yet the two parents might have been similar and the sex-
elements similar, somewhat after the fashion seen in Paramecium and the
like. There is some advantage in the specialization of ova and sperma-
tozoa along different lines, and this is associated with sex differences.
But it is not certain whether the sex differences follow from a primary
division into egg-producing and sperm-producing individuals, or whether
the differences themselves are really primary, and lead to egg-production

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial " we," and they
do not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers
noted, nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of
this part of the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually pub-
lished, and to describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, etc., which are
either new or have not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so-
called, but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, Reproduction, and
allied subjects.

t The Determination of Sex. Cambridge (1914) 172 pp. (23 pis.).

K 2

124 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in the female and sperm-production in the male as secondary conse-
quences. It is interesting to speculate whether the characteristics of
ovum and female, of spermatozoon and male, may not each be due to
fundamental ratabolic and anabolic tendencies, characteristic of male-
ness and femaleness, quite apart from the exigences of reproduction, as
suggested by Geddes.

There have been three main opinions as to the true period of sex-
determination, the oldest being that this takes place in embryonic life,
while more recent investigations have pointed to the time of fertilization
or before that. In Phylloxera and Hydatina two kinds of eggs are
laid, which differ from one another in size, and the larger always pro-
duce females, the smaller males. The two kinds of eggs are laid by
different parthenogenetic mothers, and the same distinction into male-
producing and female-producing females is of wide, though not invari-
able occurrence in Aphids, Rotifers, and Cynipidte. In the last two
fertilized eggs always yield females, while parthenogenetic eggs are of
two sorts, male-producing and female-producing. In Rotifers, an egg
which would have yielded a male if unfertilized, produces a female if
fertilized.

In regard to Dinophilus, it used to be believed that the two sizes of
eggs both required fertilization, but the work of Shearer has shown that
the larger female-producing eggs conjugate with a sperm-nucleus, while
the smaller male-producing eggs do not. In the hive-bee and some
other Hymenoptera unfertilized eggs develop into males. In some
moths and birds the female transmits certain characters to her male
offspring only : therefore there must be two kinds of eggs. In some
Mammals (cat and man) the male transmits certain characters to the
female offspring exclusively : therefore, according to Doncaster, there
must be two kinds of spermatozoa.

The facts of " sex-limited inheritance " (notably in currant-moth,
Drosophila, canary, cat, and man) seem to show that sex-determining
factors are borne by the ova and spermatozoa, and that sex cannot
be altered after fertilization. It is curious that some of the cases
point to the egg being all-important as regards sex-determination, while
others point to the spermatozoon. It is possible that sex is determined
by an interaction of factors from the two parents.

The evidence is then adduced in support of the hypothesis that the
presence of an unpaired or unequally paired chromosome is connected
with sex-limited inheritance. It is not maintained, however, that the
sex is determined simply and immediately by the presence or absence of
a particular chromosome, for it may be that chromosomes are rather
links in a chain of events, of which the determination of sex is only
one.

If there are two kinds of spermatozoa in some types and two kinds of
eggs in others, and if these two kinds are produced in equal numbers, as
there is good reason to expect, the numbers of the sexes should be
approximately equal. But the ratio at birth of males to females varies
considerably. It may be that the proportions of the two kinds of eggs
can be altered by environmental influences ; it may be that the state of
the germ-cells at fertilization is important ; it may be that effects of

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 125

environment act on the egg after fertilization. Some of the experimental
work on secondary sex-characters suggests the possibility of the sex of
an embryo being modified after fertilization by an alteration in the
physiological conditions.

In regard to secondary sex-characters, Doncaster suggests, as others
have done, that each sex may have the potentiality of producing either
male or female sexual characters, and that whether the one or the other
set of characters appears depends on the particular kind of metabolism
of the tissues concerned. It is important to distinguish between factors
for sexual characters and for sex-determination. The inherited factors
for the secondary sexual characters may be present in each sex, and the
sex-determining factor may decide which shall appear. The problems
of hermaphroditism and gynandromorphism are discussed in a special
chapter.

The general conclusions of this interesting and luminous book may
be briefly indicated. Many facts point to the reality of a sex-
determining factor resident in the sex-chromosomes and inherited like
any other Mendelian character (as was first suggested by Bateson and
by Castle). Individuals which receive the factor from both parents
would be of one sex, those to which it is transmitted by one parent only,
of the other sex. But formidable difficulties are involved (1) in the
evidence that the egg may influence the sex in cases in which observa-
tions on chromosomes indicate that the sex should be determined by
the spermatozoon ; and (2) in the evidence that the sex may be occa-
sionally modified after fertilization by influences acting on the embryo
or even later in life.

The author is inclined to give up the hypothesis of an unchangeable
hereditary entity, the presence of which always causes one sex and its
absence the other. He suggests that sex-determination depends on the
reciprocal action between an inherited factor and its surroundings.
Thus every germ-cell would bear a sex-determining factor, but when
this factor has relatively small intensity of action, its effect may be
counterbalanced by other causes which alter the physiological relation on
which sex-determination depends. Certain extraneous conditions acting
on the egg or early embryo may perhaps counteract the effect of the
sex chromosome.

Age of Human Embryo.* — 0. Grosser discusses the relation of
ovulation and menstruation in the human female, in its bearing on the
problem of determining the age of the young embryo. The literature
of the subject is examined and compared, and the author concludes that
the time of ovulation varies round a mean, which falls within the first
pre-menstrual week. The duration of the tubal migration of the fertilized
ovum is not eight to ten days as in many Mammals, but may be more
than twenty and is normally at least fourteen. Implantation takes place
most frequently in the pre-menstrual period, but is not limited to this.

Effect of Corpus Luteum Substance on Ovulation in Fowl.f
Raymond Pearl and Frank M. Surface find that the ovulation of an

* Anat. Anzeig., xlvii. (1914) pp. 264-83 (1 fig.).
m t Journ. Biol. Chemistry, xix. (1914). pp. 263-78.

12f'» SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

actively laying fowl is immediately inhibited by the injection in sus-
pension, in proper dosage, of the desiccated fat-free substance of the
corpus luteum of the cow. It has been shown by Loeb that one function
of the well-developed corpus luteum in the Mammalian reproductive
cycle is to inhibit ovulation. Its substance does the same in birds where
there is nothing corresponding to the corpus luteum. The duration of
this effect varies with different fowls from a few days up to two or three
weeks. After the hen begins ovulating again the laying goes on un-
impaired. The same effect is produced by the injection of extracts of
the lutear substance, either intravenously or intra-abdominally. The
active substance in producing the inhibition is inactivated by boiling.
According to the authors the fact that the inhibiting function of the
corpus luteum can be exercised in Birds as well as in Mammals, suggests
that natural selection had nothing to do with the evolution of either the
organ or the function in Mammals. But the argument does not appear
to us to be convincing on this point.

Egg-production in the Domestic Fowl.* — R. Pearl and F. M.
Surface publish the third part of their biometrical study of egg-production.
The present paper deals with variation and correlation in the physical
characters of the egg, and presents quantitative data, with a biometrical
analysis of these, regarding the normal variation and correlation of the
egg of the domestic fowl in respect primarily of size and shape. The
material used was eggs of Barred Plymouth Pock pullets. The egg is
relatively more variable in length than in breadth, and more variable in
shape that in either of the linear dimensions, length or breadth. The
weight of the egg and its volume are more variable than any of the
other characters. There is a close agreement between the egg of the
domestic fowl and the human skull, in respect of the degree of variation
exhibited in the corresponding size and shape characters of the two
structures. A consideration of the processes concerned in the production
of the definitive size and shape of the egg and the skull suggests, though
it does not prove, that this similarity in regard to variation constants is
due to mechanical factors operative in both cases during the development
and fixation of the final form. With the exception of breadth, all
dimensional characters studied show significantly a symmetrical varia-
tion. All of the egg dimensions studied are correlated in varying
degree. Intra-racially egg length and egg breadth are correlated only
slightly. Neither the weight nor the volume of the egg is more than
slightly correlated with its shape. Both length and breadth are signifi-
cantly correlated with the weight and volume of the egg. The bulk-
measures (volume and weight) are more highly correlated with breadth
than with length. The specific gravity of the egg exhibits only a very
small degree of variation. The skull and egg show a correspondence in
respect to the degree in which their chief dimensions are correlated. A
comparison of the egg of the domestic fowl with those of a number of
species of wild birds leads to the result that in general the eggs of wild
birds are neither less nor more variable than those of the domestic fowl.
The essential factors concerned in the determination of the degree of

* U.S. Dept. Agric, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bull. ex. pt. iii. (1914).

ZOOLOGY A\D BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. L27

variation in size and shape of egg are probably purely physiological, and
in no direct or immediate way. if at all, related to the action of natural
selection. A study of Lntra-in dividual variation indicates that the
relative variability of eggs is a definite characteristic of the individual.

Development and Evolution of Lungs.* — M. Makuschok has
studied the development of the lungs in the nurse-frog, Alytes obstetricans,
which agrees with other Amphibians investigated (frog, toad, newt,
salamander, etc.). The primordia of the lungs appear as very minute
depressions in the posterior portion of the branchial region. They
never appear in Alytes before the completion of the fifth gill-pocket,
but there are differences in this respect between the various Amphibian
types. In the Axolotl the six pouches appear in order, and then the
lung-prim ordia ; in the newt the sixth pair of pouches and the lung-
primordia appear almost simultaneously ; in Bomhinator the sixth pair
appear after the lung-primordia. This may be because the sixth pair of
pouches are soon reduced to mere vestiges — the post-branchial bodies.
and it is well-known that vestigial structures tend to have a belated
appearance in ontogeny.

The appearance of the lung-primordia after the sixth gill-pouch
is what might be expected if the lungs are serially homologous with
gill-pouches. Their early stages and their relation to the gut are closely
alike. Soon after their appearance the lung-primodia are separated off
from the branchial region — slowly in Alytes, quickly in other Amphibia.
The post-branchial cavity becomes the laryngo- tracheal cavity, com-
municating with the definitive branchial cavity by a minute slit. This
slit defines the posterior border of the branchial cavity and the anterior
end of the oesophagus. If the lungs have had a developmental connexion
with the hepatic diverticulum, they lose it when they are separated off
from the gut.

The author supports Goette's view that the lungs are derivatives of
the last (the seventh) pair of gill-pouches. He regards Crossopterygii
and Dipnoi as types which remained by the way while their relatives
(Pro-Pulmonata) pressed on towards terrestrial and tetrapodous and lung-
breatbing existence.

Development of Feathers.f — Raymond Pearl and Alice M. Boring
have studied the regeneration of feathers, comparing the patterns in the
regenerates and in the originals. In order to follow particular follicles
they made tattoo circles round them. It is known that the barred
pattern of some fowls, e.g. Barred Plymouth Rock, behaves in a clean-
cut Mendelian manner, and seems to be represented by a single Mendelian
factor or gene.

1. In the general body plumage a feather is not usually regenerated
m< >re than three times, the follicle remaining quiescent. Wing primaries
have the maximum regenerative capacity.

2. A follicle that has been absolutely inactive for a long period
(e.g. six months) preceding the natural autumn moult produces a new

* Anat. Anzeig., xlvi. (1914) pp. 497-514 (8 figs.).
t Science, xxxix. (1914) pp. 143-4.

128 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

feather in connexion with the moult, in the same manner as does any
other follicle of the body. The process of moulting re-activates the
follicle which has been brought into a quiscent state by successive
feather removal.

3. The precise pattern is usually reproduced each time with extreme
fidelity of detail. But if the feather is removed from the follicle as
soon as it is fully grown, thus forcing continued regenerative activity,
the pattern tends gradually to break up. Perhaps the pattern gene is
represented in each follicle by a strictly limited amount of material.

■f. The secondary sexual feathers of the male, such as the saddle
hangers, only appear as adult plumage. The same follicles which produce
these, produce as juvenile plumage only undifferentiated body feathers.
If the juvenile feather be removed apart from the normal moult, the
next feather produced by that follicle will be the secondary sexual
feather, and not a feather of the juvenile type. After that all the
regenerations are of the sexually differentiated feather.

Visceral Clefts in Chelonians.* — H. v. Alten has studied embryos
of Ghrysemys marginata with particular reference to the visceral clefts
and the " branchiogenic " structures which arise from the epithelium of
the clefts, namely thymus, "epithelial bodies," and supra-pericardial
bodies. There are five pairs of branchial pouches and a paired diverti-
culum which is constricted off to form the supra-pericardial bodies.
These are closely associated with the last two pairs of pouches, but
are at first quite distinct. Later on, the wall of the gut forms a
lateral diverticulum bearing the fourth and fifth pouch and the supra-
pericardial body, so that the last looks almost like an appendix of the
fifth pouch.

The first, second, and third pouches open to the exterior. The
fourth comes close to the ectoderm, but no opening was seen. The first
pouch forms a dorsal epithelial thickening in close relation to the facial
ganglion, and it also forms a " branchial cleft organ." The second forms
a dorsal epithelial thickening in close relation with the glossopharyngeal,
and there is also a ventral diverticulum. The third forms a marked
epithelial thickening in relation to the vagus, and a ventral diverticulum is
constricted off. The close resemblance between the origin of the supra-
pericardial bodies and that of the fourth and fifth branchial pouches
leads the author to the view that there are six pairs of these pouches, as
some maintain for Teleostei, Anura, Urodela, and Lacertilia.

Brooding Instinct in the Domestic Fowl.p— R. Pearl publishes
an account of observations on the brooding instinct of the domestic fowl
in its relation to egg-production. Broodiness normally constitutes one
element in the cyclical reproductive activities of the female. It recurs
with greater or less regularity following periods of laying. The degree
of intensity of the brooding instinct, both in respect of its objective
manifestations and of its physiological basis, may vary considerably at

* Ber. Nat. Ges. Freiburg, xx. (1914) pp. xcix-cv.
t Journ. Animal Behaviour, iv. (1914) pp. 266-88.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 129

different times in the life of the same individual. Broodiness in the
domestic fowl is not necessarily connected with any particular season,
and though it is usually preceded by the. laying of a "clutch " of eggs,
it is not necessarily so. Well-marked broodiness behaviour may in
certain cases disappear very quickly. The manifestations of the brooding
instinct are apparently closely connected with the functional activity of
the ovary, though the precise nature of the connexion has not been
analysed.

Abnormal Hen's Egg.* — F. E. Chidester described a curious gourd-
shaped egg, which had a constricted yolk. It is regarded as probably
due to a constricted oviduct rather than to the fusion of two eggs during
apposition induced by antiperistalsis. According to Parker, doubleness
in eggs is due to an abnormal ovary, or to an abnormal oviduct, or to
both combined. Cases of ovum in ovo may be due to antiperistalsis,
but two ovarian follicles may combine. Fere claims that he succeeded
in producing double eggs in a hen which normally laid single eggs, by
drugging her with atropine sulphate.

Milky-white Jell in Axolotl Spawn. f — Arthur M. Banta and
R. A. Gortner found a freshly-laid clump of the eggs of Ambly stoma
punctatum with milky-white instead of transparent jell. There was no
evidence of bacterial decomposition. The outer and inner egg-mem-
branes were transparent as usual and the imbibition of water was normal.
The normal jell yielded • 337 p.c. of dry material ; the white jell
yielded 0*361 p.c. The normal jell had an average of 8*32 p.c. of
nitrogen ; the white jell had an average of 9*18 p.c, in neither case
corrected for ash material. The difference in nitrogen-content is in the
same direction and of almost precisely the same amount that it would
be if the opaque appearance were produced by an admixture of albumen
with the mucin which composes the normal egg-jell.

Accessory Appendages in Amphibian Larva. $ — A. M. Banta and
R. A. Gortner publish the results of some observations on' accessory
appendages and other abnormalities due to the action of centrifugal
force on Amphibian larvae. Eggs were treated in various stages from
unsegmented eggs to the gastrula, and the paper describes the effects of
the treatment on the earlier stages. At a stage when the blastopore
had just become evident, a centrifugal force equal to 1700 times gravity
killed most, but all that survived developed accessory tail-like appen-
dages. A force of 1350 times gravity killed very few, and the survivors
all showed accessory appendages. Treatment applied earlier than the
blastula stage, or at the advanced gastrula and later stages, produced no
abnormalities. There was usually only one accessory appendage to each
animal, though as many as four were noted. The appendages were
usually lateral, or even dorso-lateral in position ; they were distinctly
tail-like, and the myomere structure could be seen even when there were

* Amer. Naturalist, xlix. (1915) pp. 49-51 (2 figs.).

t Biol. Bull., xxvii. (1914) pp. 259-61 (1 fig.).

X Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, and Med., xi. (1914) pp. 177-8.

130 'SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

no fin-like margins. Interpretation of these and oilier abnormalities is
left for a larger paper.

Inbreeding.* — II. S. Jennings gives a general formula for the rate
at which organisms become homozygotic through continued brother ami

sister mating. The formula gives "(1) the proportion of individuals that
will lie homozygotic for any given character after any number of un-
broken generations of such inbreeding ; and (2) the average proportion
of the characters of a given individual that will be homozygotic after
any number of unbroken generations of such inbreeding. The numerical
value obtained may be called the coefficient of homozygosis.

Let x = the coefficient of homozygosis ; n = the number of inbred
generations (the number of times successive brother and sister mating
has occurred) : f v / 2 , / 3 , etc. = the successive terms of the Fibonacci
series (thus f x = 0, /_> = 1, etc.). Then the formula for the coefficient
of homozygosis is —

2 n-l + f . 2«-S + /„ • 2"- y

The coefficient of inbreeding on the same lines (brother and sister
mating) is — — . The coefficient of inbreeding in self-fertilization

is — - , and the coefficient of homozygosis is the same. The co-

on

2"
2" - n - 1

v « — A V

efficient of inbreeding in cousin matings is ' — J ', in parent and
offspring matings

Inbreeding.j — Raymond Pearl points out that the values of the co-
efficients of inbreeding for a particular pedigree are composed of the
following elements : (1) the occurrence of the same individual animals
more than once on the sire's side of the pedigree only ; (2) the occur-
rence of the same individual animals more than once on the dam's side
of the pedigree only; and (8) the re-appearance of animals which,
appear first on one side of the pedigree (either the sire's side or the
dam's side) on the other side. The occurrence of (3) means that
sire and dam are in some degree related, and the question arises what
portion of the observed inbreeding is due to this. It appears that an
individual may be inbred in ten generations to within two-tenths of one
per cent as intensely, measured by the coefficients of inbreeding, if his
sire and dam are in no way related, as he would be if his sire and dam
were brother and sister. But clearly the germinal constitution of the
individual produced would, except by the most remote chance, be quite
different in the two cases. Pearl suggests a method for measuring the
proportion due to kinship of the parents, and that due to earlier re-
duplication.

* Amer. Naturalist, xliii. (1914) pp. 693-6.

t Amer. Naturalist, xlviii. (1914) pp. 513-23 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 131

Hybridism between Cockatoos.* — Ernest Warren describes two
hybrids between Cacatua galerita (male) and Licmetis nasica (female).
Actual pairing was observed. Out of seven eggs, laid in three separate
years, only two hatched. The hybrids stand between the two parents,
but somewhat nearer to Cacatua than to Licmetis ; they illustrate the
blending of characters. Out of ten characters the hybrid is nearer to
Cacatua in five, nearer to Licmetis in one, and almost exactly inter-
mediate in four. In every character examined, with the possible excep-
tion of the coloured and non-coloured lores, there is a very obvious
blending of the male, and female characteristics ; and although the
external appearance of any hybrid is not to be regarded as an absolute
guide to its inherent gametic character, the evidence, so far as it goes,
points to a real blending of the characters of the parents, and the prob-
able absence of so-called gametic purity, or the segregation of characters
in their sexual elements.

Hybridization Experiments on Fishes. f — Giinther and Paula
Hertwig have made a number of crosses, the varied results of which are
interpretable in terms of 0. Hertwig's theory of different degrees of
idioplasmatic disharmony between the paternal and maternal nuclei.

Nearly related forms, e.g. Gobius jozo and G. capito, may be crossed
successfully and the viable though weakly offspring may be hatched.
But a crossing of G. jozo or G. capito and Grenilabrus pavo results in
the death of the developing ovum in the blastoderm stage or at the
commencement of gastrulation.

Reciprocal crosses do not always yield the same results. Thus all
the ova of Grenilabrus pavo fertilized with sperms from a species of
Gobius die at the blastula stage, while the reciprocal hybridization
results in embryonic stages which attain to gastrulation of a pathological
sort. It is therefore necessary to recognize that the specific structure of
the germ-cells (the nature of the ovum-cytoplasm and deutoplasm) must
be taken into account. But the authors are not inclined to depart from
the doctrine of Hertwig and Strasburger that the idioplasm is nuclear.

Development of Pronephric Duct in Elasmobranchs.J — George A.
Bates has enquired into this much-investigated subject, his material
being Acanthias embryos prepared by the vom Rath picro-osmo-platinic
method which renders cell-outlines and limiting membranes very distinct,
and makes it possible to differentiate between different cells and cell-
layers. This is all-important, for the main question is whether the
duct takes its origin in whole or in part from the mesoderm, or whether
it arises from or is contributed to by the ectoderm. The result of the
enquiry is to show that the primordium of the duct is a direct outgrowth
from the pronephros, and therefore mesodermic in origin, that its subse-
quent growth is accomplished by the division of its own cells, and that

* Annals Natal Museum, iii. (1914) pp. 7-28 (1 pi.).
t Arch. Mikr. Anat., 2te Abth. lxxxiv. (1914) pp. 94-88 (1 pi.).
% Journ. Morphol., xxv. (1914) pp. 345-72 (5 pis.). See also Tufts College
Studies, iv. (1914) No. 2, pp. 345-72 (5 pis.).

132 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

it nowise receives contributions of cells from the ectoderm. It seems
clear that the duct is not developed from an ectodermic groove. If the
nephridia of Vertebrates ever opened to the surface through ectodermic
pores, and later into a canal arising from the ectoderm, ontogeny has
failed to repeat phylogeny in Acanthias, for there is no hint of such a
condition in the development.

Experiments on Amphibian Ova.* — R. A. Gortner and A. M, Banta

have tried the effect of dilute solutions of certain phenolic compounds on
eggs of Amphibians, with particular reference to pigmentation and
toxicity. It seems that black melanic pigment results from the inter-
action of an oxidizing enzyme of the tyrosinase type with some oxidiz-
able chromogen, the exact nature of which has not been ascertained.
Gortner has shown that w-di-hydroxyphenols inhibit the action of
tyrosinase in vitro, and it is suggested that certain types of colourless
animals owe their lack of pigment to the presence of inhibitory com-
pounds. Gortner and Banta find that orcinol in 0* 05-0* 01 p.c.
concentration produces retardation in growth and considerable retarda-
tion in pigment development. Resorcinol is even more effective.
Tyrosin is, at most, only slightly toxic at saturation (0*04 p.c).
Bacterial infections are very common and make the solution sufficiently
toxic to slightly retard development and occasionally reduce pigmentation.
In most cases a marked increase in pigmentation occurred when the
embryos were kept in solution of tyrosin of - 01-0 "04 p.c. con-
centration during and after the onset of pigmentation. To give one
other example, tyrosol in concentration as great as * 05 p.c. retarded
growth and pigmentation, and killed Spelerpes larva? within 15 days.
Weaker solution retarded growth and pigmentation, but did not prove
fatal, and in time the animals developed the usual amount of pigment.

Sex Ratio among Jews. f— Raymond Pearl and R. N. Salaman dis-
cuss the possible connexion between the time of the fertilization of
the ovum and the sex ratio. The sex ratio among Jews sometimes shows
a marked preponderance of males, e.g. among Russian Jews, 1459 per
thousand in 1893, 1331 in 1897, 1295 in 1901. It may be that there
is negligence in recording the births of daughters. Pearl and Salaman
have enquired into a possible connexion with the time of fertilization
of the ovum relative to the catamenial period (very strictly fenced off
by Jewish regulations), and find no evidence of this. The higher male
sex-ratio shown by the general Jewish statistics, if not due to faulty
registration, must owe its origin to other factors than the time of the
fertilization of the egg. The results leave open the question of the
possible importance of the metabolic condition of the germ-cells at the
time of fertilization. The distribution of ovulation over the inter-
menstrual period in the human female is so wide as to preclude any
possibility of forming any judgment as to the relative age of discharged
ova, on the basis of the time of menstruation.

* Biochemical Bulletin, iii. (1914) pp. 357-6S.
t Amer. Anthropologist, xv. (1913) pp. 668-74.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 133

b. Histology.

Endoplasm and Exoplasm.* — F. K. Studnicka has studied in the
note-chord of Belone aeas and in the dental papillae of the horse, cellular
processes which throw light on the formation of the endoplasm or
deutendoplasma on the one hand and on the nature of the ectoplasm
(individual ectoplasm as contrasted with synexoplasm) on the other.

Plasmic Structures.! — Julius Arnold, one of the veteran cytologists,
has collected his chief observations and conclusions in a book. He
discusses plasmosomes and chondriosomes, mitosomes and mitochondria,
and shows that cellular pathology and physiology must be deepened by
a recognition of the importance of the granula. The independence of
the microsomes is limited, and though their role is sometimes quite
definite, there are pathological and normal processes which demand
a recognition of the co-ordinated life of the cell as a whole.

Movements of Melanophores of Frog. J — S. J. Holmes publishes
the results of a further series of observations on the reactions and move-
ments of isolated melanophores of the frog. He finds that black pigment
cells in tissues from the frog cultivated in lymph or plasma sometimes
wander out free from other cells. The pigment cells show a typical
amoeboid movement, and may creep to a considerable distance. The
smaller melanophores are relatively more active, and become isolated
more often than the larger ones. Processes may be formed that are
mostly free from pigment, and pigment may flow back and forward within
cell processes. The changes observed in the pigmentation of the
chromatophores are partly due to variation in the distribution of
pigment within the cell, and partly due to changes in the outline of the
cell itself. Heat causes a withdrawal of cell processes. Light has very
little influence in the movements or state of contraction of the melano-
phores. Pigment-cells show a positive tkigrnotaxis, the newly formed
pseudopods being adhesive to solid bodies.

Chondriosomes of Cartilage Cells. § — Luigi Torraca has studied
these in the newt's tail during the process of regeneration. Some of the
cells of the blastema along the axis of the regenerating bud are trans-
formed into chondrioblasts. During this transformation the chondrio-
konts increase in length and thickness and number. The staining
reactions change.

In the mitosis of the cartilage cells the chondriome does not seem
to participate actively. During the karyokinesis the mitochondria seem
more numerous than chondriokonts, but these do not completely dis-
appear. When the nucleus passes into a resting stage the chondrio-
konts again predominate.

When the ossification of the vertebras begins,- the cartilage cells

* Anat. Anzeig., xlv. (1914) pp. 438-58 (27 figs.).

t Ueber Plasmastrukturen und ihre funktionelle Bedeutung. Jena, 1914,
xviii and 471 pp. (4 pis.). See also Anat. Anzeig., xlvii. (1914) pp. 367-8.
X Univ. California Publications (Zool.) xii. (1914) pp. 167-74 (1 pi.).
§ Anat. Anzeig., xlv. (1914) pp. 459-74 (5 figs.).

134 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

begin to undergo retrogression and disappear. In these cells the
ehondrionie shows disintegrative phenomena which lead on to a fragmen-
tation of the chondriokonts and the gradual disappearance of the
residual granules. In the degeneration of the other cell- structures, the
chondriome is also destructively affected, undergoing rupture or solution.

Taste-buds of Rabbit's Tongue.* -- Martin Heidenhain describes
the minute structure of the papilla foliata of the rabbit, a pear-shaped
or oval area with about sixteen ridges. Each ridge has a very variable
median lamella of connective tissue and two approximately constant
lateral lamella;. The taste-buds in a series on each side of a ridge com-
municate with the epithelial grooves between the ridges. The buds are
embedded in the layered flat epithelium of the buccal cavity, and to
each there extends a minute canal from the surface. This canal ends
in a slight enlargement or ampulla at the outer end of each bud. The
bud consists of covering cells and sensory cells connected by intermediate
forms. The basal cells described by Hermann in the depths of the bud,
are elements of the indifferent intergemmal epithelium. The buds are
mostly arranged in the sensory area in transverse rows, perpendicular to
the surface of the tongue ; they vary greatly in size ; all the largest
have two or three pores. During development division-processes seem
to occur, so that one bud becomes two, and the buds with several pores
are fixed stages in the process.

Ganglion Cells in Palatine Tonsil of Man.f — Gaspare Alagna
calls attention to the presence of ganglion cells associated with a nerve
branch in the palatine tonsil in man.

Nerve Cells in Human Epidermis. $ — Gosta Haggqvist describes
much -branched cells in the epidermis and at the boundary-line between
corium and epidermis. They probably correspond to the cells of
Langerhans. From the cells between the connective tissue and the
epidermis numerous processes extend into the epidermis and branch there
repeatedly. Some of the branches are connected with other branched
cells : some end freely between the epithelial cells. The cells forming
a second row beyond the corium boundary may be connected with a
third row. They perhaps represent a primitive set of epidermic
sensory cells.

Scleral Cartilage of Urodela.§ — Fr. Stadtmuller discusses in a
preliminary paper the occurrence and significance of scleral cartilage
elements in Urodela. He expresses the view that the state of the
scleral cartilage is influenced by the conditions of life. Thus it persists
in permanently aquatic forms, such as Proteus, Menobranchus, Siredon,
Cryptolranchus, and Mmopoma (which sometimes goes on land for a
short time). It is variable in the typically amphibious Amblystoma,
Typhlomolge, and Triton. It is absent, according to Eigenmann, in the

* Anat. Anzeig., xlv. (1914) pp. 385-405 (16 figs.).
t Anat. Anzeig., xlvii. (1914) pp. 283-5 (2 figs.).
I Anat. Anzeig., xlvii. (1914) pp. 285-8 (3 figs.).
§ Ber. Nat. Ges. Freiburg, xx. (1914) pp. cvi-cvii.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 135

blind cave newt {Typhlotriton spelseus), but it is also absent in adults of
Salamandra maculosa, S. atra, and Salamandrina perspicillata, where the
eye is not rudimentary. In cases where the larva- are aquatic and the
adults terrestrial {Salamandra, Salamandrina, etc.), the scleral cartilage
is present in the larval stage (so far as is known) and absent in the
adults.

Minute Structure of Penis and Glans in Lemurs.* — Ed. Retterer
and H. Neuville, continuing their comparative study of the external
male genitalia, deal with the penis of the Aye-Aye, Lemur catla,
L.mongoz, and Galago. The glans is free in Aye- Aye and Lemur ; in
Galago it is united by a frenum to the prepuce. There is a bone in the
penis or the glans in the Aye-Aye and Lemurs ; there is none in Galago
where the corpora cavernosa are adipose as in many Feline animals.
There is little foundation for the view that the glans is a swelling or
distal expansion of the corpus spongiosum. Three-fourths or five-sixths
of the glans (the pubic or dorsal portion) represent the distal end of the
corpora cavernosa and their integumentary envelope. The remainder
(the ventral or rectal portion) corresponds to the corpus spongiosum of
the urethra, which itself results from a fusion of the two folds of the
corpora cavernosa.

c. General.

Distribution and the Origin of Species. f — Asa C. Chandler has
enquired into the relation between the extent of distribution and
"speciation." His facts relate to mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians,
insects, and amphipods. As the range of a group of animals is extended,
the species increase out of proportion to the genera, the genera out of
proportion to. the families, and the families out of proportion to the
orders. Allowing for explicable exceptions, the increase in number of
lower systematic groups out of proportion to increase of higher systematic
groups as the area considered is enlarged, is a remarkably constant and
widespread phenomenon. The author shows how the phenomenon may
be theoretically explained in terms of isolation, the time element, and
the causes of specific and generic transformation.

Scales of Heterodontus francisci.+ — J. Frank Daniel has made a
minute study of the scales of this Californian shark. The ventrals may
be distinguished from the dorsals. The ventrals on side view are not
unlike helmets. Various types occur, such as the stomodaeal denticles.
A dorsal scale, seen from above, presents the appearance of a Greek
cross, upon which an unusually high and sharp-pointed spine arises.
Various types occur, such as the supra-orbitals and the anchor scales at
the base of the pelvic fins and behind the cloaca. The study of transi-
tion areas leads to the conclusion that the dorsal and ventral scales
represent distinct types with structural differences dependent largely on
the location of the scale. In other words, an indifferent scale may

* C.$. Soc. Biol. Paris, Ixxvii. (1914) pp. 509-12.

t Amer. Naturalist, xlviii. (1914) pp. 129-60.

J Univ. California Publications (Zool.) xiii. (1914) pp. 147-66 (2 pis. and 4 figs.).

L36 SUMMARY OF OUERENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

become a dorsal or a ventral according to conditions of pressure. Scales
differ according to time of origin, Borne being embryonic and some
secondary. They also differ according to function, as is illustrated by
the marginals, which hecorae large in exposed situations. The young
scale, after the tip has perforated the skin, is very plastic. The exposed
supra-orbitals tend to hypertrophy ; the stomodreal scales tend to
atrophy.

Responses of Sessile and Motile Organisms.* — Victor E. Shelford
enquires into the different kinds of response in sessile and motile
organisms. By responses he means reactions, changes in function and
structure induced by external conditions, whether directly or indirectly,
quickly or slowly. Thus motile organisms may change their position,
colour, etc. ; and sessile organisms may grow in a particular way or
adjust their body in relation to a stimulus. Mobile organisms tend
largely to behaviour responses, and sessile organisms rather to structural
responses. The author emphasizes the need of considering all sorts of
responses of both sessile and motile organisms if an adequate theory is
to be established.

Theory of Malignant Tumours. f — Th. Boveri suggested in 1902
that malignant tumours might be the result of an abnormal condition
of the chromosomes, as, for instance, in pluripolar mitoses. Aichel has
sought to combine this suggestion with another, that the beginning of
the tumour may be the coalescence of a leucocyte and a tissue cell.
But Boveri adheres to his view that the malignant cells result from some
nuclear or chromosome defect which they cannot remedy. He passes
from cellular to nuclear pathology.

Effects of Temperature on Tropical Marine Animals.:}: — A. G-.
Mayer has experimented on corals and medusa? as to their death-
temperatures. Reef corals,- in common with other marine animals, live at
temperatures within about 5° of their temperature of maximum activity
and within 10° of their death-temperatures. The factor of safety in
respect to elevation of temperature is far less in tropical than in temperate
marine animals. They are, relatively speaking, poorly adjusted in a
physiological sense to their temperature environment. Slight differences
produce more serious effects than in the marine animals of the temperate
regions. Moreover, tropical marine animals can withstand cooling
better than they can survive heating above their normal life-temperature.
High temperature appears to cause asphyxiation, the oxygen in the
water being insufficient to support the intensified metabolism.

Feet of Bats.§ — F. De Fenis has made a study of the different
types of foot in Chiroptera and the various adaptations exhibited. He
recognizes four types : — (a) the adaptation to suspension is at a minimum,

* Amer. Naturalist, xliii. (1914) pp. 641-74.

f Zur Frage der Entstehung maligner Tumoren. Jena (1914) 64 pp. See also
Anat. Anzeig., xlv. (1914) pp. 477-8.

X Carnegie Inst. Washington Publications. No. 183 (1914) pp. 1-24 (8 figs.).
§ Arch. Zool. Exper., liv. (1914) pp. 195-220 (11 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 137

and there is a power of bipedal progression, e.g. in Chiromeles ; (b) the
adaptation to suspension is in the callosities or an adhesive disk on
the plantar surface, e.g. Thyropoda and Myxopocla ; (c) the points of the
claws adhere to roughnesses on the rocks, e.g. Carollia ; and (d) the
suspension is effected by the long curved claws which grip the branches
like hooks.

1NVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.

Fresh-water Molluscs of Celebes. *— G. Bollinger makes a report
on a collection of molluscs — mostly of small size — from Lindu-lake in
Central Celebes. He records thirteen species, of which four are new,
Bythinia sarasinorum, Isidora badse, Planorbis sarasinorum, and P. badse.
There is also Isidora sarasinorum sp. n. from the south-east of the island.
A consideration of the collection points to the conclusion that the
molluscs of the basin in question have been derived from all sides and
represent a markedly mixed fauna.

y. Gastropoda.

Development of Periwinkle.! — H. C. Delsman gives an account of
the development of Littorina obtusata, one of the common periwinkles.
The eggs are laid in clumps on the fronds of Fucus serratus, and the
development lasts (in September) for fully three weeks. The diameter
of the unfertilized ovum is about 205 fx ; two maturation divisions
occur and after their completion two approximately similar nuclei are
seen in the egg. The first cleavage results in two equal cells, and the
second likewise. The third cleavage is unequal and " dexiotropic " (as
is the rule in Gasteropods with right-handed spiral shells) ; four macro-
meres (endodermic) are separated from four micromeres. The next
establishes the primary trochoblasts or " turret-cells " ; the next the third
quartette ; the next the mesentoblasts ; and so on. In the 49-cell
stage there are 7 endomeres, 2 mesentoblasts, and 40 ectomeres, but it
is difficult to picture their relations without the diagrams. The end of
the segmentation is a disk-like plakula of about 150 cells, the endomeres
being flattened out. Perhaps this should be regarded as the first step
in the gastrulation, which is very suggestive of that of lancelets.

After the completion of the gastrula there is a remarkable change of
form, and the development of the veliger begins. The shell-gland is
seen very early, but there is no trace of the head vesicle which has been
observed in Fusus, Nassa, Crepidida, Calyptrsea, etc., and has a respira-
tory function. Perhaps the fact that the eggs are fastened to seaweed
in the surf -zone may explain the absence of any special respiratory
provision at this stage. There is no podocyst or yolk-mass, and the
structure of the veliger, with its foot, velum, stomodamm, and so on, is

* Rev. Suisse Zool., xxii. (1914) pp. 557-79 (1 pi.).

t Tijdschr. Nederland. Dierk. Ver., xiii. (1914) pp. 170-340 (10 pis.).

April 21st, 1915 l

138 SUMMARY OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

clear and typical. The development of these structures is described in
detail, and the author goes on to that of the tongue and radula. Special
attention is given to the chordoid tissue of the tongue. It seems
probable that: the musculature of tin- tongue has a common origin with
the columellar musculature, from which also that of the creeping foot
is subsequently derived.

Attention is directed to two transient structures — the " nephrocysts "
and the larval heart. The nephrocysts are two very large cells, one on
each side of the gullet in the primary body-cavity. The larval heart is
a thin-walled portion of the body-wall, in the mantle cavity behind the
velum, which pulsates vigorously long before the definitive heart is
formed. The invaginated endoderm cells differentiate into stomach,
liver, and intestine. The hind part of the intestine appears to be
< inlodermic. From the first the primordium of the liver is unpaired
and dorsal.

The sense-organs appear before the nervous system. The statocysts
arise from a minute ectodermic proliferation of the epithelium of the
foot behind the mouth. Very similar is the origin of the eyes. Between
the two lobes of the velum and the apical cell-plate, ou each side of the
latter, there is a group of small cells, which retain for a time an embryonic
character, and include the primordia of tentacles, eyes, and cerebral
ganglia. A detailed account is given of the development of the nervous
system. That of the heart, kidney, and gonads is more provisionally
described. The shell and the mantle, the torsion and the asymmetry
are also dealt with.

Acroloxus lacustris.* — E. Popple, in recording the occurrence of this
fresh-water Gasteropod in Hertfordshire, compares it with the much
commoner Ancylus fluviatilis. In the latter the shell is rather round
and elevated, the beak blunt and turned to the right. In the former
the shell is oblong and depressed, the beak sharp and turned to the left.
The usual habitat of Ancylus is on stones in running water, while
Acroloxus is generally found on leaves of aquatic plants in still water.
•• Apart from the above differences it is found on examining the body of
Ancylus fluviatilis that the important organs are situated on the left
side, whereas in Acroloxus lacustris they are placed on the right side of
the body." In Ancylus there are 120 rows of 37 teeth on the radula,
in Acroloxus 75 rows of 3!) teeth.

Arthropoda.

Olfactory Sense in Hymenoptera and Spiders. t — N. E. Mclndoo
has made numerous experiments with ants, bees, hornets, and spiders in
reference to the sense of smell. The odours used were such as oil of
peppermint, thyme, winter green, clove, and bergamot. "When the
pedipalps of spiders are removed the behaviour remains normal, and the
reaction time is -practically the same as when intact individuals are
tested. But when the antenna? of Hymenoptera are mutilated in the

* Trans. Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc, xv. (1915) p. 240.
t Smithsonian Misc. Coll., lxiii. (1914) No. 9, pp. 1-63.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. L39

slightest degree, the behaviour is abnormal, and the reaction times are
slower than when intact individuals are used. It may be, however, that
the slowness is due to the abnormal behaviour of the insects and not to
the fact that some of the olfactory structures are kept from functioning.

When the chelicerae of spiders are removed, no abnormal behaviour
is observed. The reverse is the case when the maxillae of bees are
removed. In both cases the reaction ti re is slightly slower. When
the mouth-parts of honey bees are mutilated the behaviour of the insects
is abnormal and the reaction times are slightly increased. This may be
due to the abnormal behaviour of the insects, or to the fact that the
pores on the mouth-parts are prevented from functioning, or to both
conditions combined. The removal of the wings increases the reaction
times. When the pores on the wings are covered with glue the reaction
times are much increased. When most of the pores on the legs are
covered with vaseline the reaction times are greatly increased. When
spiders or Hymenoptera are so injured that most of the olfactory pores
are prevented from functioning, the reaction times are greatly increased,
even when the behaviour is otherwise quite normal.

When the antennae of any insect are injured the behaviour is no
longer normal, and the failure of the insect to respond to odours near
it does not prove that the seat of smell is in the antennae. It must be
noted that cutting the antennae exposes a large nerve and many sense
cells. The insect is no longer normal in its behaviour, and in some
cases the injury is rapidly fatal.

The author considers the structure of the antennae in reference to
the widespread view that the sense of smell is located there. In the
honey bee the pore plates can scarcely be considered as olfactory organs,
for the drone has almost eight times as many as the queen, and yet
responds to the odours presented in slightly more than one half the time.
It is true that those of the queen are considerably larger, but even on
this basis the reaction times are not comparable.

The pegs may be entirely eliminated as olfactory organs, for they
are absent in the drone, while they are abundant in the worker and the
queen. Drones, queens, and workers have about the same number of
Forel's flasks and pit pegs. Schenk's view that the pegs receive odour
stimuli in the queens and workers, while Forel's flasks and the pit pegs
function in this way in the drones is inconsistent, because if the last two
structures function for such a purpose in the drones, why should they
not do so in the females ? Since these two structures are few in number
and many times smaller than the pegs, we cannot compare them physio-
logically.

The author's argument is that the distribution of these antennary
organs in the honey-bee does not correspond with the facts experiment-
ally established as to the reaction times of the queens, workers, and
drones when tried with the various odours. It is otherwise, however,
with what the author calls olfactory pores. If the reaction time of each
caste of bees is compared with the total number of olfactory pores, a
consistent inverse ratio is observed. A drone has 2600 pores and
responds in 2*9 seconds ; a worker has 2200 pores and responds in 3*4
seconds ; and a queen has 1800 pores and responds in 4*9 seconds.

L 2

140 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Pore plates, pe'_ r s, Forel's flasks, pit pegs, and end roils have all been
considered as olfactory organs by various authors. Pore plates cannot

be the olfactory structures in all insects, for they arc entirely absent in
Lepidoptera. The pegs cannot be the olfactory structures in all insect-.
for they are absent in many male bees and almost wanting in Lepidoptera,
although possibly the end rods in butterflies and moths are homologous.
According to Vom Rath, pegs are found not only on the antenna? and
mouth parts but also all over the body. Nagel also found them else-
where than on the antennae. If the pegs are the olfactory structures,
and if insects from which the antennae have been cut off are normal, the
author asks why such insects do not respond positively, to a slight extent
at least, to odours, instead of negatively as most observers claim.

Spiders can smell, yet they have no antenna?, and the author's
negative conclusion is that the antennae in Hymenoptera play no part in
receiving odour stimuli. His positive conclusion is that the olfactory
pores are the sensory structures. These olfactory pores were observed
by Hicks in 1857, and called by him vesicles. He saw them on the
bases of the wings, on the halteres, and on the legs of Diptera, on the
bases of all four wings in other orders, on the trochanter and femur of
all insects, and occasionally on the tibia. He observed the nerves going
to them, and suggested that they were olfactory. They have also been
studied by Janet.

Mclndoo describes the various groups of pores in bees, on the bases
of the wings, on the legs, on the sting, on the mouth-parts. For the
legs of ants the number varies from 463 to 1090. The grand total for
a drone bee is 2608, and that is the highest number observed. The
olfactory pores consist of inverted flasks in the chitin and of spindle-like
sense- jells lying beneath the mouths of the flasks. About two-thirds of
the space at the bottom of the flask is occupied by a hollow chitinous
cone, continuous with the cuticle. A sense fibre from the outer end of
each sense-cell pierces the foot of the cone and enters the pore aperture,
where its cytoplasm comes into direct contact with the air and the
odorous particles. A fibre from the base of the sense-cell goes to a nerve.
The author has no belief in odours getting through a continuous chitinous
cuticle. In spiders Hicks's vesicles are represented by the slit-like lyri-
forni organs first described by Bertkau. Mclndoo finds them at the
distal end of each joint of the legs, pedipalps, chelicerae ; occasionally on
the spinnerets and on the ventral surface of the body.

o. Insecta.

Myrmecophilous Organs of Larval Lycaena orion.* — R. Ehrhardt
describes these interesting structures, which are of two kinds. On the
dorsal surface of the caterpillar, in the middle of the 10th segment,
there is a longitudinal slit. When this is titillated by the antennae of
an ant, it opens, two cushion-like lips are seen, and between them there
appears a small drop of secretion which is greedily licked up by the
ant. Besides this, there is on the 11th segment a scent-organ which

* Ber. Nat. Ges. Freiburg, xx. (1914) pp. xc-xeviii (9 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 141

is of no direct use to the ants. There are two protrusible papilla?,
with a terminal wreath of very fine hairs. When the caterpillar is
touched by an ant the papilla? are protruded, and a scent attractive to
ants is exhaled. The caterpillar is always attended by ants, who afford
it protection. Ehrhardt finds that when the ant is touched by
small centipedes or beetles, or the like, the scent-organs are protruded.
But there was no secretion except when he held the centipede so that
it touched only the area of the secreting organs with its antennas and
first pair of legs. By means of other stimuli, thermal and electrical,
the protrusion of the papillae and an activity of the secreting organs
can be induced. Ehrhardt was able by using an electric current to get
ten secretions in lj minutes.

The secreting organ in the full-grown caterpillar consists of four
secretory vesicles, which project far into the body-cavity and fill up the
greater part of segments 1), 10, and 11 ; each consists of two giant cells,
a pear-shaped one in contact with the slit, and a large irregular one
beneath it, and acting as a reservoir. The external part of the pear-
shaped cell is really closed, but the membrane is very delicate and pro-
trusible. These remarkable cells probably correspond to the couple of
cells found at the base of each of the hollow glandular hairs which
are frequent on the skin. The lower one sends a plasmic strand
through the upper one, and this strand secretes the chitinous hair.

The secretory organs of Lycsena orion do not appear until after the
first moulting, and there are at first two. The development indicates
that they are transformed glandular hairs, and the process is described.
During the second moult the first two secretory vesicles are absorbed
and two new ones are formed. In the next moult these are absorbed and
four new ones are formed. The opening of the slit and the exudation
of the secretion are due to blood pressure.

The scent-organs are not developed until after the second ecdysis.
They are evaginations of the hypodermis. At the end of the evaginated
papilla there is a circle of wart-like elevations, each with a very thin
hollow seta, which, again, bears a spine-like process. Thus a large
surface is formed for the exhalation of the scent. Each hair has a
unicellular gland at its base with a very large nucleus, rich in chromatin.
The protrusion is due to blood pressure ; the retraction is brought
about by a muscle attached to the apex of the papilla. The two kinds
of organs disappear in the pupa state, and there is no trace of them in
the adult.

Variations in Italian Lepidoptera.* — Roger Verity gives an account
of a number of variations observed in Lepidoptera collected in Tuscany
and other parts of Italy by 0. Querci and himself. He deals with
species of Parnassius, Melitsea, Aryynnis, Melanargia, Erebia, Epin&phile,
Ccenonympha, Thecla, Chrysopkanus, Lycsena. and Syntomis.

Nocturnal Observations on Ants.f — V. Cornetz relates some inter-
esting observations on the way-finding of ants. Thus, in regard to a

* Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital, xlv. (1914) pp. 203-38 (1 pi.),
t Rev. Suisse Zool., xxii. (1914) pp. 581-95.

142 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

species of Myrmecocystus, il seems that there are "recognition-points"
distributed around the nest at a distance of 9 or 10 metres. These
points arc isolated, and there is something about them that evokes
re-orientation. They may be points from which some finger-posl
ass iciated with the still distant nest is perceived. J>ut the difficulty is
to discover how these points differ from others close beside them. In
species of Messor, there was no evidence of any acquired knowledge of
the region around the nest. Transported from near the nest to a
distance of a yard they behaved as if in an unknown world. The theory
t iat a, Ms at a distance from the nest make use of the differential
illumination of objects near the nest, requires to be carefully tested.
Many ants have a very short range of direct perception, and their
horizon is very near at hand. That some perceive big differences in
distant illumination has been satisfactorily proved. Cornetz was led
by these prohlenis to make some observations in darkness.

When a track of Tapinoma, marked by odoriferous traces, is inter-
rupted and washed across for 20 cm., it is restored in 15-20 minutes.
The restoration begins by an ant crossing the gap in a definite and
right direction, and in a confident manner. Is this because of an
orientation in reference to the light in the sky ? Cornetz covered a
gap of 40 cm. with an op.ique sheet, and found that no ant got across.
But when he put the sheet over an uninterrupted march, he found that
the inarch stopped. The stoppage is induced by the sudden cooling of
the earth and the abrupt change from light to darkness. When the
experiment was made in the twilight there was no stoppage, only a
retardation and an interrupted march was reconstituted.

Daring the night Cornetz observed a track of Tapinomit, with
110 to 1G() ants to 1 m., which extended between two houses for 18 to
20 metres. He made a gap of 3 to 4 m. and washed it. For three
minutes there was a block at each side. Then a worker went straight
across (as was seen by means of a dark lantern) and the march was
restored in 15 to 18 minutes. The next evening he repeated the experi
ment, but covered the gap with a long wooden form, which shut out
the stars (Cassiopeia). It made no difference to the result. Cornetz
believes in a sense of direction to this extent, that these ants are able to
go right on in the path which they were pursuing, though all the scent
traces have been washed away, and though there is no illumination. He
cannot defend his conclusion logically, but he is forced to a belief in
the ant's memory of the position of the median plane of its body in
space, and in a memory of the " direction " in which it was going.

New Miocene Coleoptera from Florissant.* - - H. F. Wickham
reports on part of a rich collection of beetles from the Florissant Shales.
Scudder began the study in 1893 and described 210 species ; Cockered
and Beutemueller have described 6 ; Wickham has described 172 new
forms. The present paper includes 86 of these. It seems to be plain
that the proportional development of the various coleopterous families
during the Miocene times differed, sometimes very decidedly, from that
obtaining to-day.

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, Iviii. (1914) pp. 423-94 (16 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, .MICROSCOPY, ETC. 143

New Termitophilous Beetle.*— Ernest Warren describes a Staphy-
linid, Gorotoca akermanni sp. n., found by Conrad Akermann in the nests
of E uter mes trinervius near Pietermaritzburg. In some nests a beetle
larva was found, but all attempts to rear it proved fruitless. The larva
was comparatively common ; the beetle appears to be excessively ran-.
It may be that the termites interfere injuriously with the pupa. The
genus is highly specialized, and was based by Schiodte from Brazilian
forms. This distribution indicates antiquity. The abdomen is much
swollen and the greater portion is permanently turned forwards over the
dorsal surface of the thorax as far as the middle of the pronotum.
Tragardh described a similar Staphylinid, Termitomimus, from Zululand.

Indian Mallophaga.f — V. L. Kellogg and J. H. Paine report on a
collection of Mallophaga obtained from the skins of birds (mostly Indian
crows, jays, and pheasants) in the Indian Museum. It is pointed out
that records from dried skins are not very apt to be misleading. The
danger of straggling is small because of the sedentary habits of the
parasites and their early death after the host's death. Thirteen new
species are described belonging to the genera Goniocotes, Goniodes,
' 'nlpocephalum, Docophorus, JYirmus, Menopon, and Nitzschia.

Phasgonurids of Tonkin 4 — J. Carl describes nine new species of
these Orthoptera from Tonkin. He establishes a new genus Parapsyra,
intermediate between Galops t/r a and Psyra, and regarded as representing
an ancient element in the fauna. The same may be said of Tracfiyzulpha
annulifera sp. n., of which the only other known species is found on the
Tengger Mountains in Java. This is a good example of discontinuous
geographical distribution. On the whole the Orthoptera of Tonkin
seems to be " young," consisting of endemic species of large genera with
a wide geographical representation. The endemic nature of many of the
species is related to the mountainous character of the country. The
figures refer mainly to the external genital parts.

Beaded-winged Variation in Drosophila.§ — John 8. Dexter has
studied a case that for some years seemed to defy Mendelian analysis,
but has now yielded. Masking of a Mendelian ratio may be brought
about by the presence of multiple factors, by environmental influence.
or by the appearance of lethal characters. When a beaded fly is mated
to one without the gene for beadedness a varying percentage of the Fj
offspring is beaded. If the male parent is beaded the majority of the
beaded offspring are usually females, and if the female parent is beaded
the majority of the beaded offspring are usually males. A female beaded
fly, however, gives a larger percentage of beaded daughters than does a
male beaded fly. It may be that the male offspring are somewhat
influenced to or away from beadedness by the nature of the ovum-
cytoplasm. Beaded wings showed no linkage to any sex-linked character.

* Ann. Natal Museum, iii. (1914) pp. 103-6.
t Records Indian Museum, x. (1914) pp. 217-43 (2 pis.).
J Rev. Suisse Zool., xxii. (1914) pp. 541-55 (12 figs.).
§ Amer. Naturalist, xliii. (1914) pp. 712-58 (12 figs.).

144 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARl I IKS RELATING TO

There is evidence that a larger percentage of the F! generation have
beaded wings when the culture is wet and the food alkaline There is
also evidence of a gene which hehavesasa lethal factor preventing the
development of any fly that carries it in a homozygous condition.
Whether the gene concerned in the production of beaded wings is
dominant or recessive is determined probably by (1) the nature of the
egg cytoplasm ; (2) the presence or absence of the lethal gene ; and
(3) the nature of the environmental conditions.

Failure of Ether and Radium to produce Mutations in Droso-
phila.* — T. H. Morgan has enquired into the possibility that ether or
radium may have brought about the mutations which he has observed
in Drosophila ampelophUa. In a total of 31,168 flies subjected to ether,
there was not a single mutation observed, so that it seems safe to say
that ether does not play the role of a specific agent causing the muta-
tions. Experiments on a large scale in subjecting the flies to the
emanations of an X-ray machine and of radium salts failed to produce
any mutations, although the flies were made sterile for a time. At
various times experiments have also been made with changes of tem-
perature, salts, sugars, acids, and alkalis, without any resulting mutation.
Guyenot also treated the fly to high temperatures, to radium, and to
X-rays without result. Many mutants of Drosophila are known, but
their occurrence seems to be very rare. They appear under conditions
where all the other flies in the same culture are normal. But it is not
known whether they are evoked by external influences, accidents of
mitosis, hybridizing, changes in the chromosomes, or otherwise.

Apterous Drosophila.f — Charles W. Metz has studied the heredity
of an apterous mutant of the fruit fly, Drosophila ampelophUa. The
apterous character is a simple Mendelian recessive, which independently
mendelizes with miniature wings, white eyes and vermilion eyes, and
hence is not sex-linked. The apterous factor is transmitted independently
of the factor for pink eye. It is distinct from vestigial wing. It is
closely linked to black.

The apterous mutant is not only entirely destitute of wings but has
greatly reduced balancers. It is weak, sluggish, short-lived, and with a
marked incapacity for reproduction. Germ-cells are produced normally,
but the individuals evidently find it difficult to perform the reproductive
processes.

No crosses were obtained between apterous and apterous, but each
sex was successfully crossed with winged forms. The apterous female
could produce only a few eggs.

Although many opportunities were given, no apterous form gave
rise to a vigorous race. It seems that vigour and viability are directly
associated with morphological characters, and are not to be separated
from them by selection. In other words, the factor responsible for lack
of wings is also responsible for physiological disturbances. The case
shows that a factor may have far-reaching effects, and need not be

* Amer. Naturalist, xliii. (1914) pp. 705-11.

t Amer. Naturalist, xliii. (1914) pp. 675-92 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 145

limited to one part or organ. The final result of development is not
due to the independent action of various factors and their products, but to
the combined action, or the interaction of these products. The normal
development of the wing is influenced by many factors, as is suggested
by data derived from the various wing-mutations in this fruit-fly. One
factor is responsible for miniature wings, another for vestigial, another
for rudimentary, another for curved, and so on.

Early Stages of Paltostoma schineri.* - - H. Scott describes the
larva? and pupae, recently found in Trinidad, of Paltostoma schineri,
one of the remarkable family of Blepharoceridge or " net-winged midges."
The species has hitherto been described from the male sex only. Female
larvaa and pupas are now described for the first time. The larva has
short two-jointed antennas ; dorsal surface spinose ; branchial filaments
arranged in tufts : lateral processes simple, pediform, ciliate, without
long setas ; sixth segment with only one pair of lateral processes. In
the full-grown larva there are ten branchial filaments, arising in five
pairs, in each tuft. In the half -grown larva the number is much less.
A similar increase during growth has been observed in Liponeura. The
larvae and pupas, described as those of the South African Kellogina
barnardi, do actually belong to that species, in spite of doubts expressed
on that point. The larvae of Kellogina and Paltostoma have a number
of points of resemblance, and both differ from Gurupira in the arrange-
ment of the branchial filaments. But in the possession of spines
Paltostoma approaches Gurupira. The pupa of Paltostoma schineri is
characterized by the large number of erect spiniform hairs on its dorsal
surface. The mouth-parts of the male conform to the general Ble-
pharocerid type, but are characterized by extreme length and slenderness
of labrum, hypopharynx, and labium, and by extreme reduction of the
palpi, which are minute and at most two-jointed. The female has a
much shorter, stouter proboscis, and palpi normally developed.

The paper includes a full description of the female imago by C. G.
Lamb.

5. Arachnida.

Life-cycle of a Spider.f — Jeanne Berland has made a study of
Uloborus plumipes, a cribellate spider. It is a sun-loving creature,
making a horizontal orbicular web between the Opuntia-stems at Banyuls-
sur-Mer. When disturbed, it pays out a thread and sinks to the ground,
where it is difficult to detect. Each ivory-white cocoon contains about
fifty eggs, and is sedulously watched by the mother. The hatching was
observed under a binocular, and the first moult, which immediately
ensues. A compact group of young spiders remains around the empty
cocoon for some days. The observer fed two hundred for six months
first with Aphides and then with fruit-flies {DrosophUa) whose legs had
to be removed.

The young spiders make circular webs adjacent to one another, and

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xv. (1915) pp. 181-202 (3 pis.)

t Arch. Zool. ExpSr., liv. (1914) Notes et Eevue, No. 3 pp. 45-57 (9 figs.).

1 16 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

if a victim falls on the boundary-line, a struggle ensues, tf the individual
who claims the food is much molested by its neighbour, it will treat the
neighbour as a second victim. The mothei will eat the young ones if
they stray on to her web.

The mortality of the young is enormous during the first three weeks.
This is not due to f ractricidal competition, but the cause is unknown.
Some mortality is connected with moulting. There are five moults
before the adult size' is attained. When moulting is about to occur the
spider remains immobile, does not spin, and does not eat. The cuticle
cracks, the spider swings gently, and draws out its long limbs from their
husks.

The young males make good webs ; the adults eat less and make
irregular webs. The adult life of the male is short -on an average two
or three weeks. In the adults reared from eight cocoons there were
twenty-nine males to fifty-two females. The pairing period is short.
The females seem to choose. A male rejected one day was accepted
next day by another female. The female may kill the male, winding
silk around' him and sucking his body, as is well known in some other
spiders. The intricate sex-behaviour is carefully described.

Antarctic Pycnogonids.* — T. V. Hodgson makes a preliminary

report on the Pycnogonida collected by the ' Gauss ' in the Antarctic
regions. The collection includes three new genera and twenty new
species. In Notoendeis g.n., near Colossendeis, the body is perfectly seg-
mented, with short and distinctly separated lateral processes, and with
well-developed eyes ; the proboscis is very large ; the palps are nine-
jointed, and the oviger is ten-jointed, with a terminal claw. In Austro-
pallene g.n., there are large and stout cephalic spurs ; the body is robust
or slender, with distinct segmentation, with lateral processes close
together or widely separated ; the eyes are well-developed : the proboscis
is tapering with or without a setose wreath ; the cheliferi are stout, the
chelaj short and powerful ; there is no trace of palps : the ovigers are
ten-jointed, without a terminal claw ; there is a distal swelling on the
fifth joint of the male ; there are no auxiliary claws. In Austrothea
g.n., are included Ammotfiea-tike species with a body not discoid in any
sense, and without the transverse ridges characteristic of the genus
Ammothea in the strict sense. The legs are comparatively long.

e. Crustacea.

Crustaceans from Mauritius.! — E. L. Bouvier calls attention to
some interesting Crustaceans collected by M. Paul Carie on the coast of
.Mauritius. Thus there is the very rare Stomatopod Gomdactylus {Pro-
tosquilla) guerini White, of which only two specimens have been pre-
viously recorded. The Decapod Ortmarmia alluaudi Bouvier has a
mutation-form, Atya serrata Spence Bate, and there is probably a
similar relation between Ortmannia edwardsi and Caridina richtersi.
The small Palinurid, Palinarellus wieneclri de Man, has only been seen

* Ann. Nat. Hist., xv. (1915) pp. 141-9.

t Comptes Rendus, clix. (1914) pp. 698-704.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 147

thrice before, and not less rare is Pseudibacus pfefferi Miers, which
appears to be the post-larval free-swimming form of a Kcyllarid, probably
Scyllarides sqmmmosus Edw. Many other interesting forms occur in
the collection.

Larval Stages of Palinurus.* — E L. Bouvier gives an account of
the phyllosoma-stages of Palinurus vulgaris, and of the transition from
the phyllosoma to the puerulus. It appears that the rock-lobster does
not pass through the curious phyllamphion stage descri lied by Reinhardt
in 1858, for the puerulus comes right out of the phyllosoma.

Larval Stage of Jaxea nocturna.f — E. L Bouvier describes the
Lucifer-like trachelifer stage of Jaxea nocturna, a rare Decapod, the
natant stage of which is still to seek.

Male of Anthura gracilis. J — E. W. Sexton gives a full description
of the adult male of this Isopod. The female and young male have
been previously described, but not the adult male. The statocysts
on the telson are in general structure the same as those of Gyathura
described by Thienemann. Each consists of an oval vesicle, with
crystalline bodies forming a statolith, with a fine duct communicating
with the exterior, and with a strong muscle attached to the anterior
wall.

Annulata.

Studies on Polycha3ts.§ — W. C. M'Intosh discusses additions to
British Spionidae and Cirratulidae recorded by Southern from the
West Coast of Ireland ; the British Terebellidaa, describing twenty-five
species ; Terebellids collected by the ' Porcupine ' and the ' Knight
Errant'; Chaetopteridaa, Arnphictenidaa, and Ampharetidse from the
Gulf of St. Lawrence ; Ampharetidae and Terebellidae from off Norway ;
and the occurrence (186:3) of one of the Pisionidte (Macrochseta clavicomis
Sars) at St. Andrews. Numerous bristles and hooks are figured.

British Marine Annelids. || — W. C. M'Intosh is to be congratulated
on the progress of his monograph on British Polychteta, the present
instalment being the first part of the third volume. It deals with the
families Opheliidaa, Scalibregmidaa, Sphaerodoridse, Teletlmsas, Chlorre-
midas, Chaetopterida?, Spionidae, Cirratulidae, Capitellidae, Maldanidae,
Ammocharidag, which are represented by fifty-four genera.

Oligochseta from Northern India. % — J. Stephenson describes a
large number of new species mainly from Northern India. Noteworthy
is Enchytrmis harurami sp. n., for only one other certain species is
known from India. The sperm-sacs are described. The occurrence of

* Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 179-93 (6 figs.).

t Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. U914) pp. 194-206 (11 figs.).

X Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 236-43 (12 figs.).

§ Ann. Nat. Hist., xv. (1915) pp. 1-58.

|| Ray Soc. Monograph (1915) viii and 368 pp.

«j[ Records Indian Museum, x. (1914) pp. 321-65 (1 pi.).

148

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Mkroscolex phosphoreus at Peshawar, in the extreme north of India,
Too miles from the sea, is interesting since the species had its proba
original home in the temperate zone of South America, whence, with
other representatives of its genus, it lias been drifted across the South
Atlantic and Indian Oceans and become widely distributed in the
Southern Hemisphere. Some of the other records are of much interest.

Leptonereis glauca Claparede.*- -L. N. G. Ramsay describes this"
small Nereid from wharf piles at Plymouth. He revises the characters of
the genus which agree with those of Nereis, except in the following respects.
The proboscis is furnished only with soft papillae : the notopodium and
neuropodium are rather deeply divided; in the male heteronereid, the body
is divided into three distinct regions, the middle one only being modified
for swimming, while the posterior is marked by the appearance of
peculiar fused setae, not present in the Nereid-form or in the female
heteronereid. The species of Leptonereis are discussed, and it is pointed
out that Leon nates pusillus of Langerhans is at least vary closely related
to Leptonereis glauca of Claparede.

Nernatohelminthes.

Structure of Female Genital Apparatus in Spiruridae.t— L. G.
Seurat has made a comparative study of the female genital apparatus in
this family of Nematodes. The simplest type is seen in Protospirura
numidica of the cat. The large vulva, a little behind the middle of the
body, is connected with a relatively short straight ovijector, which has
no reservoir for storing the eggs. The uteri run in opposite directions,
one towards the head and one towards the tail.

Spirura, remarkable for an attaching cutaneous fold in the region
of the oesophagus, has female genital parts like those in Protospimra,
from which it may be derived. Another branch leads to Gongylonema,
living in a burrow in the mucous membrane. In this genus the uteri
are divergent as before, but the vulva is near the anus. In Gongylonema
scuta turn Midler, the ovijector is almost half as long as the body (31 mm.
in an individual of 70 mm. in total length) and in Viguiera euryoptera
Rud. the ovijector is also very long.

In other Spiruridge the vestibule and the sphincter are not in a
straight line, e.g. in Hartertia ; in Habronema, a central group, the
vestibule may be straight and without a storing receptacle, as in
H. microstoma Schn. of the horse, or with a pyriform reservoir capable
of holding 200 eggs as in H. muscae, also from the horse.

From Habronema two series diverge. In one the vulva approaches
the anus ; in the other it is shunted towards the head. In both, there
tends to be a change in the position of the uteri, which come to lie side
by side. The first series includes Cyrnea and Tropidocerca ; the second
series includes Physocephalus, Arduenna, Spirocerca. The author's
general conclusion is that the condition of the female genital organs
^ives a clue to phylogenetic relationships.

* Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 214-52 (1 pi.).
+ Cornptes Rendus, clix. (1 ( J14) pp. 1016-18.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, BTC. 149

Echinoderma.

Variability in Hybrid Echinoids.* — 0. Koehler reared larvae
from ova of Sphserechinus granulans, fertilized by spermatozoa of
Strongylocentrotus lividus, and observed the fluctuating variability of
the characters. The question is whether this is an expression of en-
vironmentally induced modifications, or of diverse combination of
Mendelian factors. His observations lead him to the conclusion that
an important determinant of the direction of the inheritance (from
similar as well as from dissimilar parents) is the relative age of the
gametes at the time of fertilization.

The causes of the variability in the^ hybrids of the cross Strongylo-
centrotus $ and Sphserechinus 9 are exclusively internal ; they are to
be found in the different ages of the gametes at the moment of fertili-
zation, and in the occurrence of a periodic osciliation of the hereditary
force of the gamete with increasing age. The potency changes with
age. Whether the fluctuations are hereditary or not has not been
determined.

Variability in Rays of Starfish.f — W. J. Crozier has collected
data in reference to Asterias tenuispina at Bermuda. The modal
number of rays is 7 ; the range in ray number is 2 to 9. The 7-ray
condition is uniformly the most frequent, even in widely separated
localities. The modal ray-number is the same for animals with sub-
equal rays as for those with a group of regenerating rays.

The evidence indicates that, most commonly, this starfish has 7
rays before it undergoes autotomy, that it divides into 3-ray and 4-ray
portions, and that each of these parts regenerates four rays. Regener-
ating rays tend to appear in bilaterally disposed pairs, as regards size.
There is no evidence that self-division occurs often in the life of
individuals, though possibly it does. New rays may be added at any
point on the disk.

The number of madreporites varies from one to five, and is to some
extent correlated with the number of rays. It is not correlated with
the size of the animal. Double or triple madreporites occur in about
5 p.c. of the individuals.

Notes on Holothurians.J — J. H. Orton makes a detailed contrast of
the specific characters of Cucumaria saxicola and G. normani ; the
differential characters of most importance being found in the main body
spicules, in the spicules near the surface of the body, in the shape and
number of the gonadial tubes, and in the shape and relative stoutness of
the pieces of the calcareous collar. The variation of the gonadial tubes
in G. saxicola is recorded ; the usual number is 2-1 or 25, but there is
variation between 10 and 61, between 10 and 33 in females, between

* Ber. Nat. Ges. Freiburg, xx. (1914) pp. lxxv-xc (2 figs.).

t Amer. Naturalist, xlix. (1915) pp. 28-36 (13 figs.).

\ Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, x. (1914) pp. 211-35 (13 figs.).

l.~»0 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

15 and 6] in males. In G. normani the gonadial tubes vary from about
250 to more than 800, and the three males examined Lad more than the
three females. The calcareous collars of the two species mentioned are
carefully compared, as also the differences in the spicules of the tube-
feet. The growth-stages of the bell-shaped spicules of 0. normani are
described.

It was found that in the species normani, hyndmanni, elongata, the
gonad consists of numerous short cylindrical tubes, and the dorsal as well
as ventral ambulacra have well-developed tube-feet. In the species
saxkola and brunnea, the gonad consists of relatively few large club-
shaped tubes, and the dorsal ambulacra contain mostly ambulatory
papillae (less numerous than the tube-feet in the ventral rows), but have
a few definite tube-feet at the anterior ends. The species of this second
group may have to be referred to the genus Colochirus. The author has
also notes on Cucumaria elongata and Thyone raphanys from the
Plymouth district.

Ccelentera.

Development of Plumularian Planula.* — Ernest Warren describes
a Plumularian, provisionally called Schizotricha simplex sp. n., and the
development of its planula. The hydroid, collected at the mouth of
the St. John's River, Pondoland, shows the typical characters of the
genus Plumularia, with the exception of the presence of downward
directed offshoots from the pinnae, and the somewhat unusual occurrence
of the main stem bearing hydrothecae. The pinnules are similar in every
way to the pinnae, and they originate from the pinnae just as the latter
do from the main stem. They bear a short basal internode with trans-
verse nodes and no nematophore.

The development of the planula is noteworthy in that the egg never
becomes charged with yolk. The ovum remains small and segments in
the midst of a feeding or placental tissue. Ultimately the embryo
grows into a well-developed planula, with dimensions very greatly ex-
ceeding those of the original egg. The placental tissue arises as a
modification of a specialized portion of the ectoderm of the blastostyle.
This portion forms a kind of cap over the young ovum, and may be
regarded as representing the manubrial ectoderm of a rudimentary
gonophore which bears one egg.

Remarkable Longitudinal Scissiparity in a Madrepore.f — Ch. J.
Gravier describes in Schizocyathus fissilis Pourtales a remarkable mode
of asexual multiplication. The calyx is always inserted obliquely on a
narrow base, triangular in cross section. There are three cycles of
septa, and there is no columella. Six groups are formed, each consisting
of a median septum of the first cycle and two lateral septa of the third
cycle. Pourtales interpreted the facts as due to intracalycinal budding.
Lindstrom suggested that there was a dislocation into six groups, that

* Arm. Natal Museum, iii. (1914) pp. 83-102 (1 pi. and 4 figs.).
t Comptes Rendus, clx. (1915) pp. 103-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. L51

the polyp remained attached bo one or mure, and that it began to
reconstruct a new calyx around itself.

One of Gravier's specimens showed six equal groups, separated for
almost their entire length, united above by the living tissues. There
was no trace of budding. It seems that when the coral reaches a
certain size the wall is no longer strong enough to hold together the
six segments. These and their living tissues fall apart, and on each of
them a new calyx is formed. There is regeneration following longi-
tudinal scissiparity — spontaneous division into six segments, and then
a reconstruction on the part of each. This is the more remarkable when
we note that the living tissues form but a thin layer on the surface
of the strongly developed calcareous framework.

Nerve Conduction in Cassiopea.* — A. G. Mayer finds that the
rate of nerve conduction increases as the concentration of the cations
of sodium, magnesium, calcium, and potassium decreases. The sodium
cation is an active stimulant for nerve- conduction. The magnesium
cation is inert and non-toxic ; its role in respect to sodium in sea-water
is comparable to that of the nitrogen of the air in relation to oxygen.
The effects of potassium are similar to those of sodium, but more
marked. These generalizations apply also to the rate at which the
motor centres or rhopalia generate stimuli which produce the nerve-
impulse, but the rhopalia seem to be more readily affected by osmotic
and by concentration* changes than are the nerves.

In trochophores, ctenophores, and other forms with well-differen-
tiated cilia which move in a co-ordinated manner, the normal muscular
tonus of the animal produces a state of tension over the outer skin,
thus pressing upon the cilia-bearing cells and reducing or even stopping
their movement. When the tonus is relieved, however, the cilia beat
rapidly. Thus magnesium reduces the muscular tonus and the cilia
beat with abnormal activity. Sodium contracts the muscles and stops
the cilia. Hence the converse relation between the neuro-muscular and
the ciliary movement is a mechanical, not a chemical, matter.

Law Governing Loss of Weight in Starving Medusse.t — A. G.
Mayer has experimented with Cassiopea. xamachana, a Scyphomedusa.
When the animal starves the gelatinous mesogloea decreases in volume
and apparently serves as the chief store of food. If W be the weight
of the medusa when starving begins, a W may represent the decline in
weight due to loss of body-substance and of water at the end of the
first day, so that at the end of the first day the weight of the medusa is
W - a W - W (1 - a). Similarly, at the end of the second day the
weight is W (1 - a) - a W (1 - a) = W (1 - a) 2 . Hence the weight y
after starving x days is y = W (1 -a) x where a may be called the index
of catabolism, the rate of starvation increasing as a increases.

The medusae were kept in doubly filtered sea-water in diffuse dav-

* Carnegie Inst. Washington Publications, No. 183 (1914) pp. 25-54 (13 figs.).
t Carnegie Inst. Washington Publications, No. 163 (1914) pp. 55-84 (1 pi. and.
21 figs.).

L52 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

light. It seems that the chemical constitution does not change, but
thai one and the same class of substances serves to maintain the animal.
In Vertebrates the glycogen is first consumed and then the fats, but it
is not so in the medusa where there is no appreciable selective use of
different substances. The dried weight is about J '76 p.c. of the living
weight, and this ratio does not change as the animal starves.

In the starving animal the cells become reduced in size, many
degenerate and disappear ; the cell-boundaries tend to become indistinct.
The gelatinous substance becomes vacuolated and the muscular tonus
is largely lost. The bell-rim bends upward and inward in a balloon-like
manner. The mouths on the mouth-arms disappear in about three
weeks, so that even if there were nannoplankton present it could not
be used.

Porifera.

Sponges of Lake Baikal.* — Xelson Annandale finds that some of
the Baikal sponges are Haploscleridae, namely the genus LubomirsTzia
Dybowski in the sub-family Chalininae and Baikalospongia g.n. in the
sub-family Renierinse. The new genus includes forms like Lubomirskia
in general structure, but friable (though hard) and not at all elastic. A
stout basal membrane of a horny nature is present. The skeleton
superficially resembles that of Lubomirskia, except that there is no
horny sheath to the fibres, and that the vertical fibres do not form
definite brush-like tufts at their distal extremity, but are more or less
distinctly splayed out to form a horizontal skeletal reticulation. There
are no true microscleres. Gemmules have been found in one species-
ovoid or pear-shaped structures with a simple horny covering which is
distinctly depressed in a craterif orm manner at the narrower end. They
He in the stout basal membrane of the sponge with their long axis
parallel to it. The embryos, which are often abundant in Baikalospongia
bacilli/era, resembles those of Lubomirskia, but the free-swimming larva
is unknown.

There are also true Spongillidas in Lake Baikal, remarkable for the
abnormal character of their microscleres. There can be no doubt that
the species of Lubomirskia are of marine origin. Indeed one of them,
L. baikalensis, has actually been found in Behring's Straits. Although
the affinities of Baikalospongia are doubtful, it seems probable that its
species are derived from a marine stock.

New Sponges. t — F. Ferrer proposes a new family of Sigmatophora
(Ectyonillidte) including Ectijoailla g.n. (with protriaenes, with anat-
rigenes, with an axinellid type of skeleton, without microscleres),
Cantabrina g.n. (without protriaenes, with anatriaenes, with an axinellid
type of skeleton, without microscleres), and a number of known genera
— Raspailia Nardo, Dktyocylindrus Bow., Cyamon Gray, and Trikentrion
Ehlers.

* Records Indian Museum, x. (1914) pp. 137-48 (1 pi.).
+ Boll. Soc. Espanola, Hist Nat., xiv. (1914) pp. 451-5.

ZOOLOGY Ax\'U BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 153

Protozoa.

Foraminifera from Portuguese East Africa.* — Edward Heron-
Allen and Arthur Earlaud describe two very interesting new genera
from the Kerimba Archipelago. In India diaphana g. et sp. n., the test
is adventitious, usually attached, occasionally more or less free, consisting
of a single cavity lined with a chitinous and diaphanous membrane or
pellicle. The animal commences its existence as a small hemispherical
dome-shaped chamber, white or light grey in colour, attached to sand-
grains or shell-fragments, and constructed of very fine particles of mud
and sand cemented together into a rather friable test with a chitinous
lining. This chitinous lining is usually continued as a " floor " to the
dome-shaped chamber, but in the youngest stage the chitinous floor is
perhaps not always present The early dome-stage has sometimes an
aperture at the top or side of the dome, but quite as often no special
aperture is visible. The test increases in size by the protrusion of the
protoplasm in irregular masses, which proceed to secrete a covering
investment of sand-grains, attached to the chitinous lining. With the
growth of the organism the construction of the test becomes coarser and
the colour darker. With each increase in the size of the test, the en-
closing wall of the preceding stage is absorbed so as to leave an undivided
cavity of variable shape. In rare cases the test spreads as a forking
tube. The external shape and the internal cavity may be very irregular
owing to the haphazard mode of growth.

It seems clear that Iridia is a very simple and primitive Rhizopod.
In its sessile hemispherical form, its chitinous lining, and occasionally
papillate processes, it shows affinities with Tliurammina and Webbina,
but the aberrant and loosely constructed adult test is more suggestive of
Astrorhiza, and it is in the family Astrorhizidae that the authors place
it. Some of the large specimens are strongly suggestive of Astrorhiza
I i in kola, but lack the produced arms characteristic of that species. The
genus may be regarded as being to some extent isomorphous with
Nubecidaria lucifuga Defrance. It may be noted that stages in its life-
history were previously referred by the authors, with reservations, to
Thurammiaa papillata and Webbina hemisphserica. There is extra-
ordinary diversity in size of the Kerimba specimens, from 0'25 mm. in
diameter in the early stages to 1 mm. in the adult stages. But some
gigantic forms were 8 mm. m greatest diameter.

The second new genus is Novria with three new species, which
seemed at first like Beophax ampullacea Brady. Closer examination
showed, however, that the shells were not monothalamous as in
R. ampullacea, but polythalamous and more or less in a spiral in a Poly-
morphine manner. Many of them are conspicuous in having relatively
large and highly coloured mineral particles in their tests, as well as in
being of large size and irregular contour. Among the Kerimba specimens
of Nouria poly morpho ides, there is considerable variety of forms, com-
parable mainly with Polymorph ina compressa d'Orbigny, but also with

* Trans. Zool. Soc, xv. (1914) pp. 363-90 (3 pis.).
April 21st, 1915 M

154 SUMMARY OF CURRENT KKSKAIiCHKS RELATING TO

P. oblonga Williamson. In Nouria harrisii the test is entirely composed
of sponge spicules arranged in a single layer with their axes arranged
more or less parallel to the long axis of the test. The " skill " — or
"purpose" —exhibited by this little organism in the building of its
test reaches its most remarkable development in the construction of the
aperture. The spicules designed to form the terminal portion of the
shell are selected by the organism of such size and shape as to form a
perfectly tapered neck with a circular aperture, round which the points
of the spicules often form a regular fringe. There are sometimes pro-
jecting spicules pointing aborally, which may keep the shell erect in the
surface layer of mud. with the aperture upwards. Iu the third species,
N. compressa, the shell is also composed of sponge-spicules, but there
are occasional sand-grains or mineral flakes.

The Kerimba material was collected by Dr. J. J. Simpson. It has
yielded 460 different species and varieties, including many new forms
besides India and Nouria.

Conjugation in Amoeba.* — R. E. Hedges describes and figures the
process of conjugation in a small species of Amozba, which he took to be
A. Umax. The amoebae could be seen very clearly on the slide, but they
were so filled with bacteria that it was in most cases impossible to dis-
tinguish a nucleus. Two amoebae came into contact on the slide, and
after remaining cpuet for about 20 seconds the distinct line of contact
between the two individuals broke through for a portion of its length,
and the protoplasm of one flowed into the protoplasm of the other.
The opening grew larger as the protoplasm flowed through, and the
flowing did not take more than three or four seconds to be completed.
The union was complete and not partial or temporary, therefore the
word copulation is used instead of conjugation. The two individuals
were of nearly the same size, and the result of copulation was a slightly
larger Anwba. The transference of protoplasm was seen to be complete,
none being cast off in the process. Several pairs were observed, and in
one case the resulting Amceba was kept under observation for 4 hours.
After remaining still for a few minutes, it crawled slowly into a mass
of bacteria and remained there, apparently feeding, for the rest of the
time. During that period it was approached by another individual five
separate times, but after touching the two separated at once. The
changes of shape and the development of a " brown body " are described
and figured.

African Species of Volvox.f — C. F. Rousselet has a note on the
sexual stages of Volvox africanus and V. rousseleii, from German East
Africa. These sexual stages were collected by A. W. Jakubski, of
Lemberg ; the vegetative colonies, previously described by G-. S. West,
were collected by Leiper near the northern shores of the Albert Nyanza
and by Rousselet at Gwaai Station in Rhodesia.

* Zool. Anzeig., xliv. (1914) pp. 214-19 (5 figs.),
t Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, xii. (1914) pp. 393-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 155

Trypanosoma brucei.* — Sir David Bruce, A. E. Harnerton, I). P.
Watson and Lady Bruce have studied a Zululand strain (1918) of
Trypanosome, and find that it is the same species as that discovered by
Bruce in Zululand in LS94, reported on by Kanthack, Durham, and
Blandford in 1898, and named T. brucei by Plimmer and Bradford in
1899. In its structural characters this trypanosome is absolutely identical
with the one causing disease in man in Nyasaland, T. rhodesiense of
Stephens and Fautham.

The authors go onf to show that the pathogenic action of T. brucei,
Zululand strain (1913) on various animals is so similar, not only in
regard to the symptoms during life, but also in the post-mortem appear-
ances and rate of mortality to that of the trypanosome causing disease in
man in Nyasaland, that it affords another proof that these two trypano-
somes are identical.

A third study $ dealing with the trypanosome causing disease in man
in Nyasaland, has shown that this belongs to the same group as
T. gambiense, the development taking place in the alimentary tract and
salivary glands, not in the proboscis, of the fly. The percentage of flies
which become infected is the same as in T. gambiense, 8 p.c. The
percentage of flies which become infective is about 1 p.c. The length
of time which elapses before a fly becomes infected varies from 14 to
31 days, average 23 days. The infective type of trypanosomes in the
salivary glands — corresponding to the final stage of the cycle of develop-
ment — is similar to the short stumpy form found in the blood of the
vertebrate host.

In a fourth paper § the authors state their conclusion that T. brucei,
Zululand, 1913, belongs to the same group as T. gambiense as regards its
cycle of development in the tsetse fly. The trypanosome causing disease
in man in Nyasaland also belongs to the same group. The cycle of
development of the Nyasaland and Zululand trypanosomes in Glossina
morsitans is so marvellously alike that it affords another reason for
believing in the identity of these two trypanosomes.

Sarcocystis muris.|| — Rh. Erdmann discusses some disputed points
concerning the life-history of this Sarcosporidian. There are two
sharply separated stages. The first period extends from the feeding
with adult Sarcosporidia to the first stage in the musculature. It lasts
for 28 to 30 days, and it is passed in the walls of the food-canal, in the
lymphatics, and in the fatty tissue of the host. The second period
includes the differentiation of the unicellular parasites within Miescher's
corpuscles which contain numerous adult Sarcosporidia. This period is
passed in the musculature only.

Dicystid Gregarines of PolychBetes.f — M. Caullery and F. Mesnil
discuss Polgrhabdina spionis (Kolliker) found in Scolel&pis fuliginosa in

* Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxxvii. (1914) pp. 493-510 (3 pis.).

t Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxxvii. (1914) pp. 511-16.

% Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxxvii. (1914) pp. 516-25 (1 pi.).

§ Proc. Roy. Soc, Series B, lxxxvii. (1914) pp. 526-31 (1 pi.).

|| Arch. Zool. Exper., liii. (1914) pp. 579-96 (2 pis.).

«f C.R. Soc Biol. Paris, lxxvii. (1914) pp. 516-20 (10 figs.).

M 2

L56 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the intestine. A sporozoite attacks an intestinal epithelial cell, pene-
trating tn some distance; it enlarges, especially in its free part; it
develops ramified fixing and absorbing amoeboid processes. It remains
for a long time fixed ; but free forms with epimerites were also found.
There are other species : — Polyrhabdina polydorse in Polydnra ciliata,
P. brasili sp.n. in Spio m&rtinmsis, and Polydora pygospionis sp. n. in
Pygospio setkornis.

-v<^~*-

ZOOLOGY AMI BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 157

BOTANY.

GENERAL,

Including the Anatomy and Physiology of Seed Plants.

Structure and Development.

Vegetative.

Dorsiventrality in Ficus.* — 0. Triilzsch has studied the causes of
dorsiventrality in the stems of Ficus pumila and other similar climbing
plants. The author finds that the dorsiventrality of the wood and
bast is especially noticeable in that part of the stem nearest to the
support, and is the direct result of difference in illumination. There is
no transmission of asymmetry to those parts of the stems not within
the zone of the unequal illumination. A similar dorsiventrality is
found in creeping stems and in steins forced to grow in a bent position.
When stems are kept in a bent horizontal position and subjected to a
strong unilateral illumination, i.e. when the curvature, the geotropic
and the heliotropic factors all act in the same direction, the dorsiven-
trality is especially marked. When one or more than one factor acts in
opposition to the heliotropic factor, the dorsiventrality represents the
resultant of all the factors. The development of the sclerenchyma
depends upon the relative dampness of the two surfaces of the
climbing stem, the greater moisture of the lower surface preventing any
considerable formation. In Ficus pumila, F. scandens, and F. barbata,
the aerial roots become dorsiventral when exposed to similar conditions ;
tbe same result is also seen in climbing branches of Hedera //el i.e. Gissus
antarctica, and Ampelopsis radicantissima, and in the stems of Ricinus
communis. The dense formations of aerial roots just below the nodes of
Ficus are not to be regarded as the result of those conditions which
produce dorsiventrality, but rather as dependent upon dryness and
light, both of which inhibit root-formation on the dorsal surface and
thus indirectly cause thicker growths on the ventral surface. Moreover
rudimentary aerial roots attain full development in the moist, shaded
condition of the ventral surface, but are modified into simple organs of
attachment on the light, dry, upper surface. The unilateral formation
of hairs on aerial roots is also due to relative conditions of light and
moisture. The asymmetry of the leaves of Ficus is an inherent
character, not dependent on external conditions, while the anisophylly
of the stem is a paratonic character brought out under the influence of
■external conditions.

* Jahrb. wiss. Bot., liv. (1914) pp. 1 -70 (28 figs.).

158 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES KKLATING TO

Reproductive.

Ovules and Seeds of Cercis.* — J. A. Harris contributes farther
observations on the relationship between the number of ovules formed
and the number of seeds developing in Cercis. The author finds that
the type, variability, and correlation of the number of ovules and seeds
per pod differ in individuals and in different habitats, but there is
no reason for concluding that trees from different habitats can be
distinguished by their seeds. The correlation for the number of ovules
formed and the number of seeds developed in each pod of an individual
tree is always positive and of moderate to high intensity. " The rate of
increase in number of seeds developing per pod remains the same as we
pass from pods with the lowest to pods with the highest number of
ovules." The correlation between the number of ovules in each pod
and the number of mature seeds is negative and usually of very low-
magnitude. These results are based only upon mature pods of Cercis
canadensis and must not be regarded as of general application except on
the basis of further investigation.

CRYPTOGAMS.

Pteridophyta.

(By A. Gepp, M.A., F.L.S.)

Ophioglossum pendulum.!— L. C. Petry discusses the anatomy of
Ophioglossum pendulum, which shows great variability in certain
structures, such as the number of protoxylem strands (2 to 6) in the root,
and in the leaf-trace (3 to 12), these differences being associated with
the size of the organ concerned. Buds develop on the roots ; and
the connexion of their vascular structures varies greatly. In this
rhizome is an ectophloic siphonostele perforated by gaps of three kinds —
root, leaf, and incidental. Medullary strands consisting only of xylem
occur in some specimens ; and their occurrence is taken to support
the stelar nature of the pith. The strands which make up the leaf -trace
arise as a curved series which later form a circle ; but those strands
which belong to the edges of the curve later break off to supply the
fertile spike ; that is, the supply of the spike is marginal.

Position of Buds in Botrychium.J — H. Woynar discusses the
position of the buds in Botrychium, which he considers characteristic
for each species, and which may therefore be used as a means of
diagnosis. The buds are certainly not absolutely stable in their
position, but pass slowly from one to another. The different arrange-

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xli. (1914) pp. 533-49 (4 figs.).
t Bot. Gaz., lvii. (1914) pp. 169-92.

J Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., lxiv. (1914) pp. 101-7 (2 figs.). See also Bot. Ceu-
tralbl., cxxvi. (1914) p. 307.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC 159

rnents are described, and previous published accounts of them are
corrected. Several abnormalities are also discussed. The species
principally treated of are : B. Lunar ia, B. simplex, B. matricarieefolium,
B. neglectum, B. lanceolatum, B. boreale, B. virginianum. The author
considers the " Formenkreis " of B. simplex as the natural phylogenetic
starting-point. He considers the much divided fern-like forms to
be off -shoots.

Branched Cells in Prothallium of Onoclea.* — Caroline A. Black
gives an account of the branched cells in the prothallium of Onoclea
sensibilis. These occur when the prothallium is badly nourished and
grown in a feeble light. The following divergences from the normal
may occur. 1. The apical cell may bend back at an acute angle
with the axis. 2. An irregularly lobed apical cell may be produced.
3. A cell in the filament may throw out a branch without forming
a cross wall at the base. 4. A 1 (ranched filamentous prothallium may
have the proliferations originating in one cell. 5. There may be an
increase in the number of growing regions. These cases are all
figured .

Water-glands in Equisetum.f — S. Nishida publishes his investi-
gations concerning the excretion of water in liquid form in species of
Equisetum : namely, E. arvense, E. limosum, E. hyemale, and E.palustre.
The following anatomical points are of importance. The structure
of the leaves is characteristic for the different species, and may be
relied on for identification. The structure of the leaf-apex can be
distinguished in the arvense, hyemale, and limosum types. The outer
wall of the leaf-epidermis is covered with a layer rich in silicic acid ;
only the leaf -apex has an outer layer rich in pectin material. The
colouring matter (brown to black) of the leaf -apex is contained in the
cell-membrane, and may be extracted by warming in water. It is rich
in tannin. The whole leaf -point functions as a hydathode, an actively
working water-gland.

Distribution of Pilularia4 — M. Y. Orr discusses the occurrence
of Pilularia globulifera in Glamorgan. Three localities have been re-
corded for the plant. But it is extinct at two of them, mountain
tarns, and is now found at only one station in the county— in a peaty
moorland pool near Welsh St. Donats, at an altitude of 400 ft. Here it
is very abundant. The author describes the physical geography of the
pool, the character of the water, and the composition of the flora in and
around the pool. He also discusses the distribution of the plant in
Britain and on the Continent, bringing out the point that Pilularia
is frequently associated with Subularia aquatica, Lobelia Dortmanna,
and fsoetes lacuslris. But these three plants are absent from the pool
at Welsh St. Donats, though found in two upland pools twenty miles
off.

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xli. (1914) pp. 617-20 (2 pis.).

t Tokyo Bot. Mag., xxvii. (1913) pp. 170-2. See also Bot. Centralbl., cxxvi.
(1914) p. 560.

% Trans, and Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh, xxvi. (1914) pp. 281-5 (1 pi.).

1 * >0 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Ferns from Yunnan.*— (i. Brause describes new ferns collected
by K. P. Maire in Yunnan. A.mong them are four species of Cheilanthes,
which brings the number of Chinese species up bo 25, of which 20 are
endemic. Adiantum venustum Don is remarkable in China for its
great variety of form. Eleven new species and one new variety are
described.

Bryopliy ta.
(By A. ( i-BPP.)

Protoplasmic Connexion in Mosses. t — A. Piskernik has investigated
and tested the various methods hitherto employed for proving proto-
plasmic connexion in mosses, and considers certain modifications advisable.
Besides the moss speciea in which connexions had already been found,
principally by Kienitz-Gerloff, she proves their presence in •". hepatics
and 22 more mosses. In certain parts of the mosses they were found in
great numbers, in Plagiochila about 1000 in one cell. Between sporo-
phyte and gametophyte no protoplasmic connexions were found. The
best reagents were either saturated solutiou of iodine ; or sulphuric
acid 25 per cent, with or without methyl-violet : or sulphuric acid
10-25 per cent, run under the cover-slip and then slightly warmed and
the specimen examined at once.

Starch in Bryophytes.} — H. Rancken publishes the result of his
studies on the starch of Bryophytes. In an historical introduction he
shows how previous authors have arrived at several different conclusions,
not only with regard to the presence or absence of starch in certain
species, but also as to the meaning of the diminished starch formation
found in many species. The paper is divided into : 1. The distribution
of the starch in moss plants. 2. Independence of the starch contents
from a developmental stage and from outside influences. 3. The starch
formation of the various bryophytes ; this treats of no less than 275
species examined, of which 151 were tested by the author. Then follows
an account of the author's methods and work, and a biliography. The
different moss species vary greatly in their power of producing starch,
and each species has its specific capability. They may be divided into
three categories : 1. The amylophyll species form starch in the assimi-
lative organs of the gametophyte, and store it also in most of the other
tissues ; some species very richly as Pellia and Marchantia, fairly richly
as Mnium and Kantia, moderately as Bartramia, sparely as Sphagnum
and many species of Hypnum. 2. In the saccharophyll species the
glucose, which is formed during assimilation, is not condensed into starch
in the assimilative tissues. On the other hand, in other organs starch
or starch-like substances are stored in greater or less quantity (Ortho-
triclmm or LopJiozid). 3. A few species (Andresea petrophila, Hedwigia

* Hedwigia, liv. (1913) pp. 199-209 (1 fig.).

t Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., Ixiv. (1914) pp. 107-20 (2 pis.). See also Bot. Cen-
tralbl., exxvi. (1914) p. 419.

X Acta Soc. pro Fauila et Flora Fennica, xxxix. No. 2 (Helsingfors, 1914) 101 pp.
See also Bot. Centralbl., exxvi. (1914) pp. 536-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC 161

albicans, Frullania dilatata, Radula complanatd) are anamy] and form no

starch, either in assimilative or storing tissues. Their product of
assimilation is sugar, their reserve material principally fats.

In the anamy 1 and saccharophyll mosses the suppression of the starch
formation may be regarded as an adaptation to xerophil conditions, which
is especially found among the more lowly organized lithophytes and
epiphytes. It is often associated with weakly developed conducting
tissue. Starch is richly developed in bryophytes which inhabit moist
situations, e.g. thalloid hepatics. Polytrichacese,. Bryaceae. Starch is
more densely stored in the terminal bud and vaginula, in the sexual
organs and sporogonium. And in such cases it takes the form of minute
grains. Large grains occur mostly in the form of leucoplasts in the
thallose liverworts.

New Antitrichia.* — J. G-lowacM describes a new species of Anti-
trichia, A. pristioides, whicli he found in two localities in Montenegro at
a height of 1000 m. It is a stouter plant than A. curtipendula, the
growth is more upright, and the leaves are patent. The leaf-apex is
toothed : there are no accessory veins. Fruiting specimens from Hodza
near Sarajewo were of a deep brown colour, and the hexagonal cells of
the capsule epidermis showed radial stripes of straight lines of thickened
tissue on the outer capsule wall. The spores are almost twice as large as
in A. curtipendula. The plant grows on stems of red beech and fir.

New Mosses from West Ross-shire.t — J. Stirton publishes descrip-
tions of six new mosses from West Boss-shire — namely, Gampylopus
Fergussoni, G. crenulatus, G. citrescens, Br yum rubicundum, Hypnum
intortum, and Gampylopus perplexans— all collected near Plockton in
1913. By way of introduction he calls attention to certain large cells of
moss leaves, which latterly have played an important part in the dis-
crimination of species. 1. Large oblong cells usually with thickish
walls, either pale or becoming more or less red or brown and then
opaque, situated at the base of the leaf either next the margin — the
usual situation of the auricles — or next the nerve, situated almost always
in the centre of the leaf. 2. Elongato-hexagonal cells with thin walls,
in double layers — that is, one layer of cells on the anterior surface,
the other just behind the first (as shown by thin transverse sections of the
lower part of the leaf). The position of these groups is either at the
alar margin or at the middle base. 3. Another cell plays nearly as
important a part as the other, although it is seldom or never seen quite
at the base of a leaf. viz. the fusiform, either hyaline or filled with
granules, or a modification of it (the more frequent), viz. undulating or
sigmoid in place of straight throughout.

Moss Flora of Carinthia.J — K. Prokaska records his investigations
in the Lower Gailthal, and gives a list of the mosses and hepatics. No
new species are described. In specimens of Alicularia scalaris, he found

* Oesterr. iiot. Zeitschr., lxiv. (1914) pp. 136-8 (1 fig).

t Trans, and Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh, xxvi. (1914) pp. 241-7.

X Jahresb. k.k. Staatsgyni. Graz, 1913-14, pp. 3-15.

162 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

but seldom oil-bodies in the leaf-cells, which are. however, richer in
chlorophyll. The author hopes to explore bryologically the regions
round Hermagor, Passriach and Gortschach, which promise to yield a
rich booty.

Post-glacial Mosses of Cracow.*— A. J. Zmuda gives an account
of the fossil-flora of the Cracow diluvium, including seventy-two mosses,
twenty-five of which are absent from the local flora of the present day.
Six strata lying above Miocene clay were investigated. The two lowest
strata are early post-0 lacial and contain mosses of Arctic and Arctic-
Carpathian types. The third stratum is post-Glacial, is remarkable for
containing all the European species of Galliergon, and a Tundra-flora.
The next two strata contain a forest-flora with mosses which are absent
or rare near Cracow nowadays. The author describes his methods for
extracting and preparing the fragments of mosses, etc., for the Microscope.

Bryophyta of the Near East.f -V. Schiffner writes on Bryophyta
from Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, Syria, Rhodes, Mytilene, and Prinkipo,
collected by Freiherr v. Handel-Mazzetti. The material from Meso-
potamia shows a quite European character. Eighteen species occur in
Middle and South Europe — ten are typical Mediterranean species, two
are already known from Near Asia, while six species and four varieties,
all new, belong distinctly to " Formenkreisen " of Europe. It is note-
worthy that Riccia Frosiii and Tortula Fiorii only occur there on soil
containing gypsum. Many acrocarpous mosses form here a two-layered
leaf-lamina (e.g., Tortula desertorum), or have a tendency to partial
formation of a double layer of cells (Barbula vinealis, Grimmia apocarpa).
This is probably caused'by climatic conditions. The Kurdistan flora is
also European, with the exception of one new quite foreign type, namely
Anoectangium Handelii. It is thus evident that large tracts of Asia
(the whole of Near Asia with Mesopotamia and Persia, all Siberia, and
a great part of Central Asia) possess an almost purely European moss-
flora. On the other hand the Atlantic coasts of Europe show, compared
with the rest of Europe, many more strange elements. New species are
described, and figures of their structure, and of neighbouring species,
are compared. Interesting notes are given on synonymy, relationship,
and distribution.

North American Mosses. — A. Le Roy Andrews % publishes further
notes on North American Sphagnum. He defines the character of the
group Cuspidata — the outward position of the chlorophyll cells of the
branch leaves ; the pores of the hyaline cells commonly reduced to a
minimum ; the small distinctive stem-leaves :• the shape of the branch-
leaves : and the dioicous inflorescence. The North American species

* Bull. Internat. Akad. Sci. Cracovie, 1914, Ser. B, 2, pp. 209-352 (4 pis.). See
also Bot. Centralbl., exxvi. (1914) p. 669.

f Ann. k.k. Naturhist. Hofmuseums, xxvii. (Wien, 1913) pp. 472-504 (100 figs.).
See also Bot. Centralbl., exxvi. (1914) p. 628.

t Bryologist, xviii. (1915) pp. 1-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC. 163

are Sphagnum Lindbergii, 8. ri/parium, and S. obtusion. These are dis-
cussed critically and at some length.

A. J. Grout * publishes an illustrated note on L&ptobryum pyri/orme
with gemmae from a greenhouse in Miami University. It differs in
habit and appearance from the normal fruiting plant.

E. J. Hill f discusses the little-known Fontiimlis Umbachii Cardot,
;md gives a translation of the original description. He publishes notes
on the type-locality and two other stations in Illinois where he has
collected the species, adding critical notes on the peculiarities of the
individual specimens.

Hepaticse of Alaska. :£ — A. W. Evans publishes a report on the
hepatic* of Alaska based on a large collection made in 1913 by the
Kelp Investigation Expedition of the United States Bureau of Boils.
Most of the specimens were collected by Prof. T. C. Frye, of the
University of Washington. Seventy species are enumerated, twenty of
which are new to Alaska, seven new to America, and three new to
science. Thirty-five other species have been recorded, making the
total flora 105 species. Evans gives a bibliography of the more
important papers, and a map and a list of the localities visited by the
Expedition. He describes the following new species — ■ Plar/iochila
alaskana, P. Fri/ei, Radula polyclada, and discusses sundry other species
critically. He discusses also the relationship of the flora to that of
other regions.

■'*->■'

&

Dicranacese of New Zealand.§ — H. N. Dixon continues his studies
in the Bryology of New Zealand by giving a critical account of the
following genera of Dicranacese :-- Trematodon (4 species) ; Pleuri-
dium (5) ; P. lonyirostre is new and found in Otago ; Ditrichum (7) ;
Saelania (1) : Ceratodoa (1 species and a sub-species) ; Gheilothela
(1 species); Distichivm (1): Pseudodistichium (2); iSdigeria (1) ;
Blindia (3) ; DicraneUa (5) ; D. ivairarapensis is new and occurs in the
North Island ; Campylopodmm (2) ; Dicranoweisia (1). All the species
recorded for New Zealand are carefully sifted, and according to their
merits are accepted, corrected, reduced to synonyms, or rejected. The
genera Bruohia and Dichodontkim. are rejected for lack of confirmatory
evidence of their existence in New Zealand. Keys to the genera and
species are provided.

Australasian Hepaticse. ||— F. Stephani and W. W. Watts publish
a list of " Hepaticae Australes " collected in Australia and Lord Howe
Island by the Rev. W. W. Watts, and in the New Hebrides by the Rev.
Dr. Gunn and others. Descriptions of many new species are supplied
by Stephani — forty-nine from Australia, twenty-seven from the New
Hebrides, and six from Lord Howe Island.

* Bryologist, xviii. (1915) pp. 9-10 (1